As filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission on September 18, 2026.

Registration No. 333-

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM S-1

REGISTRATION STATEMENT

UNDER

THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933

TREX BIO, INC.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

269 East Grand Avenue, Suite 300

South San Francisco, CA 94080

(650) 567-5582

(Address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of registrant’s principal executive offices)

M. Johnston Erwin, Jr.

Chief Executive Officer

TRex Bio, Inc.

269 East Grand Avenue, Suite 300

South San Francisco, CA 94080

(650) 567-5582

(Name, address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of agent for service)

Copies to:

Approximate date of commencement of proposed sale to the public:

As soon as practicable after the effective date of this Registration Statement.

If any of the securities being registered on this Form are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933, check the following box. ☐

If this Form is filed to register additional securities for an offering pursuant to Rule 462(b) under the Securities Act, please check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(c) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(d) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act. ☐

The Registrant hereby amends this Registration Statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the Registrant shall file a further amendment which specifically states that this Registration Statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section 8(a) of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or until the Registration Statement shall become effective on such date as the Securities and Exchange Commission, acting pursuant to said Section 8(a), may determine.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Through and including the 25th day after the date of this prospectus, all dealers that effect transactions in these shares of our common stock, whether or not participating in this offering, may be required to deliver a prospectus. This is in addition to the dealers’ obligations to deliver a prospectus when acting as underwriters and with respect to their unsold allotments or subscriptions.

You should rely only on the information contained in this prospectus, any amendment or supplement to this prospectus or in any free writing prospectus we may authorize to be delivered or made available to you. Neither we nor the underwriters have authorized anyone to provide any information other than that contained in this prospectus or in any free writing prospectus prepared by or on behalf of us or to which we have referred you. We and the underwriters take no responsibility for and can provide no assurance as to the reliability of, any other information that others may give you. This prospectus is an offer to sell only the shares of common stock offered hereby, but only under circumstances and in jurisdictions where it is lawful to do so. The information contained in this prospectus or in any applicable free writing prospectus is current only as of its date, regardless of its time of delivery or any sale of shares of our common stock. Our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may have changed since that date.

For investors outside of the United States: Neither we nor any of the underwriters have done anything that would permit this offering or possession or distribution of this prospectus in any jurisdiction where action for that purpose is required, other than the United States. Persons outside of the United States who come into possession of this prospectus must inform themselves about, and observe any restrictions relating to, the offering of the shares of common stock and the distribution of this prospectus outside of the United States.

RISK FACTORS

Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. Before deciding to invest in shares of our common stock, you should carefully consider the risks described below, together with the other information contained in this prospectus, including in the section titled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and in our audited financial statements and the related notes. The risks and uncertainties set out below are not the only risks we face. Additional risks and uncertainties not currently known to us or that we currently deem to be immaterial also may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, liquidity and stock price. If any of the following events occur, our business, financial condition, and operating results could be materially and adversely affected. In that case, the trading price of our common stock could decline, and you may lose all or part of your investment.

Risks Related to Our Financial Position and Need for Capital

We are an early-stage biotech company with a limited operating history and no products approved for commercial sale, which may make it difficult to evaluate our current business and predict our future success and viability. We have incurred net losses in every year except one since our inception. We expect to continue to incur net losses in the future.

We are a clinical-stage biotechnology company with a limited operating history. Since our inception in 2018, we have invested most of our resources in developing our product candidates, building our intellectual property portfolio, conducting business planning, organizing and staffing our company, raising capital, conducting preclinical studies and, more recently, clinical trials and providing general and administrative support for these operations. Biopharmaceutical product development is a highly speculative undertaking, involving substantial upfront capital expenditure and significant risk. Any product candidate may fail to demonstrate adequate efficacy or an acceptable safety profile, gain regulatory approval or become commercially viable, despite substantial investment on development or commercialization. To date, we have not yet demonstrated our ability to successfully obtain regulatory approvals, manufacture a product on a commercial scale, or arrange for a third party to do so on its behalf, or conduct sales and marketing activities necessary for successful commercialization. Consequently, predictions about our future success or viability may not be as accurate as they could be if we had a longer operating history or a history of successfully developing and commercializing biopharmaceutical products. We continue to incur significant research and development and other expenses related to our ongoing operations. As a result, we are not profitable and have incurred losses in each year since our inception except for the year ended December 31, 2023 during which we received a one-time upfront payment of $55.0 million from Eli Lilly and Company, and recognized total collaboration revenue of $41.9 million across our collaboration agreements. For the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2025, we had net losses of $3.1 million and $34.8 million, respectively. For the six months ended June 30, 2026, we had a net loss of $29.3 million. As of June 30, 2026, we had an accumulated deficit of $123.6 million. We expect to continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future and expect these losses to increase as we continue our research and development of, and seek regulatory approvals for, our wholly-owned clinical-stage product candidates, TRB-061 and TRB-071, along with any other product candidates we may develop.

We anticipate that our expenses will increase substantially if, and as, we:

To become and remain profitable, we and any current or potential future collaborators must develop and eventually commercialize products with significant market potential. This will require us to be successful in a range of challenging activities, including completing preclinical studies and clinical trials, manufacturing our product candidates, either on our own or with our CMOs, obtaining regulatory approval for product candidates, marketing and selling any products for which we may obtain regulatory approval and satisfying any post-marketing requirements. We may never succeed in any or all of these activities and, even if we do, we may never generate revenue that is significant or large enough to achieve profitability. If we do achieve profitability, we may not be able to sustain or increase profitability. Our failure to become and remain profitable would decrease the value of the company and could impair our ability to raise capital, maintain our research and development efforts, expand our business or continue our operations.

Even if we succeed in commercializing one or more of our product candidates, we will continue to incur substantial research and development and other expenditures to develop and market additional product candidates. We may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other unknown factors that may adversely affect our business. Our future results of operations will depend, in part, on the rate of future growth of our expenses and our ability to generate revenue.

Even if this offering is successful, we will need substantial additional funding in order to maintain our operations and advance the development and commercialization of our product candidates. Failure to obtain this necessary capital when needed, or on acceptable terms, may force us to delay, reduce or eliminate certain of our product development or research operations.

The development of biopharmaceutical product candidates, including conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials, is a time-consuming, capital-intensive and uncertain process. Our operations have consumed substantial amounts of cash since inception. To date, we have funded our operations primarily with proceeds from the sale of our convertible preferred stock. We expect our expenses to increase in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we advance our Phase 1 trial of TRB-061 and continue to research, develop and initiate clinical trials of TRB-071 and our other product candidates. In addition, if we successfully develop and obtain regulatory approval for any of our product candidates, we expect to incur significant commercialization expenses related to product manufacturing, marketing, sales, and distribution. Accordingly, we will need to obtain substantial additional funding in connection with our continuing operations. If we are unable to raise capital when needed or on acceptable terms, we could be forced to delay, reduce, or eliminate our product development programs or any future commercialization efforts.

As of June 30, 2026, we had cash, cash equivalents, and marketable securities of approximately $90.9 million. Based on our current operating plan, we expect that our existing cash, cash equivalents, and marketable securities, together with the net proceeds from this offering, will be sufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements for more than twelve months from the date of this prospectus. We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could use our capital resources sooner than we currently expect. We expect to attempt to raise additional cash in advance of exhausting our available capital resources.

We will not generate revenue from product sales unless and until we successfully complete clinical development and obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate, and we may not ever generate significant revenue or profits. In addition, upon the completion of this offering, we expect to incur additional costs associated with operating as a public company, including significant legal, accounting, investor relations, and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. If we obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate and do not enter into a third-party commercialization partnership, we expect to incur significant expenses related to developing our commercialization capability to support product sales, marketing, manufacturing and distribution activities. We may also require additional capital to pursue in-licenses or acquisitions of other product candidates. As a result, we expect to incur substantial operating losses and negative operating cash flows for the foreseeable future.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties, length of time and scope of activities associated with research, development and commercialization of product candidates, we are unable to estimate the exact amount of our working capital requirements. Our future funding requirements, both near and long-term, will depend on, and could increase significantly as a result of, many factors, including, but not limited to:

We do not have any committed external source of funds or other support for our development efforts and we cannot be certain that additional funding will be available on acceptable terms or at all. Until we can generate sufficient product or other revenue to finance our cash requirements, which we may never achieve, we expect to finance our future cash requirements through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings or other capital sources, including potential collaborations, out-licenses or dispositions and other similar arrangements.

Our ability to raise additional funds will depend on financial, economic and market conditions and other factors, over which we may have no or limited control. Market volatility resulting from geopolitical and economic instability, including as a result of trade policy, inflation and the wars between Russia and Ukraine and in the Middle East or other factors could also adversely impact our ability to access capital as and when needed. If adequate funds are not available on commercially acceptable terms when needed, we may be forced to delay, reduce or terminate the development or commercialization of all or part of our research programs or product candidates or we may be unable to take advantage of future business opportunities.

Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our stockholders and may restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to our product candidates.

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenue, we expect to finance our cash needs through equity offerings, debt financings or other capital sources, including potential collaborations, out-licenses or dispositions and other similar arrangements. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, our stockholders may be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that may adversely affect the rights of our stockholders. Debt and equity financings, if available, may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as redeeming shares, making investments, incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, declaring dividends or placing limitations on our ability to acquire, sell or license intellectual property rights.

If we raise additional capital through future collaborations, strategic alliances or third-party licensing arrangements, we may have to relinquish certain valuable rights to our intellectual property, future revenue streams, research programs or product candidates or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. If we are unable to raise additional capital when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our clinical development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

Further, we may not be able to access a portion of our existing cash due to market conditions. If banks and financial institutions with whom we hold accounts enter receivership or become insolvent in the future in response to financial conditions affecting the banking system and financial markets, our ability to access our existing cash may be threatened and could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition.

Risks Related to Product Candidate Development and Commercialization

Preclinical and clinical development is lengthy and expensive, characterized by uncertain outcomes, with results of earlier studies and trials often failing to predict future trial results or results in other indications of a product candidate. We may incur additional costs or experience delays in completing, or fail to complete, the development and commercialization of our product candidates.

Our business is dependent on our ability to successfully complete preclinical and clinical development of, obtain regulatory approval for, and, if approved, successfully commercialize our product candidates in a timely manner. We face substantial risk of failure with our product candidates, and we may fail to receive regulatory approval for any of our product candidates. To obtain the requisite regulatory approvals to commercialize any product candidate, we must demonstrate to the satisfaction of applicable regulatory authorities, through extensive preclinical studies and lengthy, complex and expensive clinical trials, that a product candidate is safe, pure and potent (or effective) for its intended uses. Clinical testing often takes many years to complete, and its outcome is inherently uncertain. The results of preclinical studies and early clinical trials of our product candidates may not predict results of later-stage clinical trials, and results in one indication may not predict results for the same product candidate in another target indication. Differences in trial design between early-stage clinical trials and later-stage clinical trials raise challenges for extrapolating the results of earlier clinical trials to later clinical trials.

A number of companies in the biopharmaceutical industry have suffered significant setbacks in advanced clinical trials due to lack of efficacy or unfavorable safety profiles, notwithstanding promising results in earlier trials. The results of our clinical trials for any product candidates may not achieve statistical significance or demonstrate a favorable risk-benefit profile. Further, negative clinical trial results for a product candidate with respect to one target indication may impact the potential or perceived potential of other target indications. Moreover, preclinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses, and many companies that have believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in clinical trials have nonetheless failed to obtain regulatory approval of such product candidates.

Before commencing clinical trials of a product candidate in a jurisdiction, we must submit an investigational new drug application (“IND”) or foreign equivalent to the United States Food and Drug Administration (“FDA”) or comparable foreign regulatory authority. We may not be able to submit INDs to the FDA or similar regulatory submissions to foreign regulatory authorities for our product candidates on the timelines we expect. Additionally, we may experience manufacturing delays or other delays with IND-enabling studies, or the FDA or other comparable regulatory authorities may require additional preclinical studies that we did not anticipate. Moreover, we have not yet had any interactions with the FDA, and we cannot be sure that submission of an IND or similar regulatory submissions will result in the FDA or other comparable regulatory authority allowing clinical trials to begin, or that, once begun, issues will not arise that result in a decision by us, by institutional review boards (“IRBs”) or independent ethics committees, or by the FDA or other comparable regulatory authorities to suspend or terminate clinical trials, including as a result of a clinical hold. Additionally, even if the FDA or other comparable regulatory authorities agree with the design and implementation of the clinical trials set forth in an IND or other similar regulatory submission, we cannot guarantee that they will not change their requirements or expectations in the future. These considerations also apply to new clinical trials we may submit as amendments to existing INDs or to a new IND. Any failure to submit INDs or similar regulatory submissions on the timelines we expect or to obtain regulatory authorization or allowance for our clinical trials may prevent us from completing our clinical trials or commercializing our products on a timely basis, if at all. A high failure rate characterizes product candidates proceeding through clinical trials, and failure may occur at all stages of the clinical trial process. Most product candidates that commence clinical trials are never approved as products, and our current or future clinical trials ultimately may fail to support the approval of our current or any other product candidates.

We expect to continue to rely, in part, on collaborators, CROs and clinical trial sites to conduct our clinical trials, including participant enrollment, and we have limited influence over their performance. We or our collaborators may experience numerous adverse or unforeseen events during, or as a result of, preclinical studies and clinical trials that could delay, prevent or terminate our clinical trials, or delay or prevent our ability to receive regulatory approval or commercialize our product candidates, including:

If we are required to conduct additional preclinical studies or clinical trials or other testing of our product candidates beyond those that we currently contemplate, if we are unable to successfully complete clinical trials of our product candidates or other testing, if the results of these studies, trials or tests are not positive or are only moderately positive or if there are safety concerns, our business and results of operations may be adversely affected and we may incur significant additional costs.

We could also encounter delays if a clinical trial is suspended or terminated by us, by the IRBs or ethics committees of the institutions in which such clinical trials are being conducted, by the data safety monitoring board, if any, for such clinical trial or by the FDA or other comparable regulatory authorities. Such authorities may suspend, place on clinical hold, or terminate a clinical trial due to a number of factors, including failure to conduct the clinical trial in accordance with regulatory requirements or our clinical trial protocols, inspection of the clinical trial operations or trial site by the FDA or other comparable regulatory authorities, unforeseen safety issues or adverse side effects, failure to demonstrate a benefit from the product candidates, changes in governmental regulations or administrative actions or lack of adequate funding to continue the clinical trial. In addition, changes in regulatory requirements and policies may occur at any time, and we may need to amend clinical trial protocols to comply with these changes. Amendments may require us to resubmit our clinical trial protocols to the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, or to IRBs and ethics committees for reexamination, which may impact the costs, timing, ability to proceed, or successful completion of a clinical trial.

To date we have conducted clinical trials only in Australia and New Zealand, and we have not conducted any clinical trials in the U.S. Conducting clinical trials in foreign countries, as we currently do and may do in the future, presents additional risks that may delay completion of our clinical trials. These risks include the failure of enrolled patients in foreign countries to adhere to clinical protocol as a result of differences in healthcare services or cultural customs, managing additional administrative burdens associated with foreign regulatory schemes, as well as political and economic risks, including war, relevant to such foreign countries. It is also possible that the FDA or other regulatory authorities may not accept the clinical data generated in research conducted in a foreign country.

If we experience delays in the completion of, or the termination of, any clinical trial of our product candidates, the commercial prospects of our product candidates will be harmed, and our ability to generate product revenues from any of these product candidates will be delayed. Moreover, any delays in completing our clinical trials will increase our costs, slow down our product candidate development and regulatory approval process and jeopardize our ability to commence product sales and generate revenues.

We are substantially dependent on the success of our two most advanced wholly-owned product candidates, TRB-061 and TRB-071, and our clinical trials of such product candidates may not be successful.

Our future success is substantially dependent on our ability to timely obtain regulatory approval for, and then successfully commercialize, our two most advanced wholly-owned product candidates, TRB-061 and TRB-071. We are investing a majority of our efforts and financial resources into the research and development of these programs. We have initiated a Phase 1 clinical trial for TRB-061. The success of this program is dependent on observing adequate safety and tolerability results, in addition to early signs of clinical efficacy in AD patients. We have initiated a Good Laboratory Practice (“GLP”) toxicology study for TRB-071. Our ability to advance this program into the clinic is dependent on observing adequate safety and tolerability results in our GLP studies. If we do not observe adequate safety, tolerability, or efficacy results in these studies such results would significantly and adversely affect the clinical and commercial potential of our programs.

Our programs will require additional clinical development, including further clinical, preclinical and manufacturing activities, receipt of regulatory approvals, substantial investment and significant marketing efforts before we generate any revenues from product sales. We are not permitted to market or promote these programs, or any other programs, before we receive regulatory approval from the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, and we may never receive such regulatory approvals.

The success of our programs will depend on a variety of factors. We do not have complete control over many of these factors, including certain aspects of clinical development and the regulatory review process, potential threats to our intellectual property rights and the manufacturing, marketing, distribution and sales efforts of any future collaborator. Accordingly, we may never be able to generate revenue through the sale of these programs, even if approved. If we are not successful in commercializing TRB-061, TRB-071 or our other programs, or are significantly delayed in doing so, our business will be materially harmed.

Delays or difficulties in the enrollment and dosing of patients in our clinical trials may cause delays or prevent receipt of necessary regulatory approvals.

The timing of our clinical trials depends on our ability to recruit patients to participate in our studies as well as the dosing of such patients and completion of required follow-up periods. Participant enrollment, a significant factor in the timing of clinical trials, is affected by many factors, including the size and nature of the patient population, the number and location of clinical sites, the proximity of participants to clinical sites, the eligibility and exclusion criteria for the trial, the design of the clinical trial, our ability to recruit clinical trial investigators with the appropriate competencies and experience, patient referral practices of physicians, challenges in obtaining and maintaining participant consents, enrolled participants dropping out, competing clinical trials and clinicians’ and patients’ perceptions as to the potential advantages of the product candidate being studied in relation to other available therapies, including any new drugs or biologics that may be approved for the indications being investigated by us.

In addition, our clinical trials currently, and may in the future, compete with other clinical trials for product candidates that address the same indications as those we are pursuing for our product candidates, and this competition reduces the number and types of participants available to us, because some participants who might have opted to enroll in our trials instead opt to enroll in a trial conducted by a competitor or elect to use a marketed therapy. We also could encounter delays if doctors face ethical challenges associated with enrolling participants in a clinical trial rather than prescribing an existing treatment with an established safety and efficacy profile.

If we or our collaborators are unable to enroll a sufficient number of eligible patients to participate in our clinical trials, we may not be able to initiate, continue or complete clinical trials for our product candidates. Even if we are able to enroll a sufficient number of participants in our clinical trials, delays in enrollment may result in increased costs, delay completion or adversely impact the outcome of the trial.

Additionally, our ability to successfully initiate, enroll, and complete a clinical trial in any foreign country is subject to numerous risks unique to conducting business in foreign countries, including: difficulty in establishing or managing relationships with CROs and physicians; different standards for the conduct of clinical trials; different standard-of-care for patients with a particular disease; difficulty in locating qualified local consultants, physicians and partners; and potential burden of complying with a variety of foreign laws, medical standards and regulatory requirements, including the regulation of pharmaceutical and biotechnology products and treatment.

We have experienced participant discontinuations from our trials. Participants, including in any control groups, frequently withdraw from a clinical trial if they are not experiencing improvement in their underlying disease or condition or if they experience adverse side effects or other issues. Withdrawal of participants from our clinical trials may compromise the quality of our data.

Difficulties enrolling a sufficient number of patients to conduct our clinical trials as planned could require us to delay, limit or terminate clinical trials for our product candidates, or expand to additional jurisdictions, which could impose additional challenges on our company. We cannot assure you that our assumptions used in determining expected clinical trial timelines are correct or that we will not experience delays in enrollment, which would result in the delay of completion of such trials beyond our expected timelines. Failure to successfully conduct our clinical trials as planned would have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Any significant adverse events or undesirable side effects caused by our product candidates may delay or prevent regulatory approval or market acceptance of our product candidates, or result in significant negative consequences following regulatory approval, if any.

If our product candidates are associated with serious or significant adverse side effects in clinical trials or have adverse safety findings in non-clinical studies, we may decide or be required to halt or delay their development or limit development to more narrow uses in which the side effects or other characteristics are less prevalent, less severe, or more acceptable from a benefit-risk perspective. The FDA or other comparable foreign regulatory authority or an institutional review board or ethics committee may also require that we suspend, discontinue, or limit our clinical trials based on safety information, or that we conduct additional animal or human studies regarding the safety and efficacy of our product candidates, which we have not planned or anticipated. Such findings could further result in regulatory authorities failing to provide marketing authorization for our product candidates or limiting the scope of the indication, if approved.

Adverse events observed in preclinical studies or clinical trials could adversely affect our future clinical trial plans. For example, there were adverse findings observed in our preclinical studies for TRB-061, including one female cynomolgus monkey being dosed intravenously at 3 mg/kg/dose in a non-GLP dose-ranging toxicology study for TRB-061 who was found dead on day 29 of that study, and a male cynomolgus monkey being dosed subcutaneously at 3 mg/kg/dose in the currently ongoing 6 month GLP chronic toxicology study for TRB-061 who required early euthanasia on day 22. Our investigation of the findings in the 6 month TRB-061 study is ongoing, and the cause of death has not been determined. However, we believe that the death in the non-GLP study of TRB-061 was likely related to generation of anti-drug antibodies (“ADA”) and ADA-mediated immune complex formation. Such adverse findings in preclinical studies could result in the regulatory authorities imposing, or us proactively proposing, an exposure cap in our planned clinical trials, if otherwise allowed to proceed. Any of our current or other product candidates may be subject to new, partial or full clinical holds in the future.

We, the FDA or other applicable regulatory authorities, or an IRB, may suspend clinical trials of a product candidate at any time for various reasons, including a belief that participants in such trials are being exposed to unacceptable health risks or adverse side effects. Many potential product candidates developed in the biotechnology industry that initially showed promise in early-stage trials have later been found to cause side effects that prevented their further development and approval. Even if side effects do not preclude the product candidate from obtaining or maintaining regulatory approval, undesirable side effects may inhibit market acceptance. Adverse events or negative patient experiences may also result in negative publicity, including through social media, online forums or peer networks, which could damage our reputation and harm clinical trial enrollment and market acceptance of our product candidates, if approved.

Even if we successfully develop a product candidate and it receives regulatory approval, the FDA could require us to adopt a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (“REMS”) to ensure that the benefits of treatment outweigh the risks for each potential patient, which may include, among other things, a medication guide outlining the risks of the product for distribution to patients, a communication plan to healthcare practitioners, restricted distribution methods, patient registries, extensive patient monitoring and other risk minimization tools that are highly controlled, restrictive, and more costly than what is typical for the

industry. Furthermore, clinical trials by their nature utilize a sample of the potential patient population. With a limited number of patients and limited duration of exposure, rare and severe side effects of our product candidates or those of our competitors may only be uncovered when a significantly larger number of patients have been exposed to the product candidate. If our product candidates receive regulatory approval and we or others identify undesirable side effects caused by such products (or any other similar products) after such approval, a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result, including:

Any of these events could prevent us or our collaboration partners from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of the affected product candidates and could substantially increase the costs of commercializing our product candidates, if approved, and significantly impact our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates and generate revenues.

We face potential competition from different sources that have made substantial investments into the rapid development of novel treatments for immunological indications, including large and specialty pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, many of which already have approved therapies in our current indications.

The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by rapidly advancing technologies, intense competition and a strong emphasis on proprietary drugs. While we believe that our knowledge, experience and scientific resources provide us with competitive advantages, we face potential competition from many different sources, including large and specialty pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academic research institutions and governmental agencies, as well as public and private research institutions. Any product candidates that we successfully develop and commercialize, if approved, will compete with existing therapies and new therapies that may become available in the future.

The key competitive factors affecting the success of all of our product candidates, if approved, are likely to be their safety, efficacy, convenience, price, the level of generic competition, the existence of therapeutic alternatives and the availability of coverage and reimbursement from government and other third-party payors.

Many of the companies against which we are competing, or against which we may compete in the future, have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved drugs than we do. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. Smaller or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. These competitors also compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel and establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs.

Our current product candidates, initially under development for treatment of various autoimmune and inflammatory indications would, if approved, face competition from existing approved immunological treatments, many of which have achieved commercial success. For example, we are currently developing (i) TRB-061 for the treatment of moderate-to-severe AD and AA and (ii) TRB-071 for IBD. There are a number of products and product candidates in clinical development by other companies which may become available in the future, which treat AD, AA, and IBD. See the section titled “Business—Clinical Development—Current Treatment Landscape” for additional information.

To compete successfully, we need to disrupt currently marketed drugs, meaning we must demonstrate that the relative cost, method of administration, safety, tolerability and efficacy of our product candidates provides a better alternative to existing and new therapies. Our commercial opportunity and likelihood of success will be reduced or eliminated if our product candidates are not ultimately demonstrated to be safer, more effective, more conveniently administered or less expensive than the current standard of care or future competing products. Furthermore, even if our product candidates are able to achieve these attributes, acceptance of our products may be inhibited by the reluctance of physicians to switch from existing therapies to our products, or if physicians choose to reserve our products for use in limited circumstances.

Competitive products may make any products we develop obsolete or noncompetitive before we recover the expense of development and commercialization. Such competitors could also recruit our employees, which could negatively impact our level of expertise and our ability to execute our business plan. If we are not able to effectively compete for any of the foregoing reasons, our business will be materially harmed.

Changes in product candidate manufacturing, formulation or analytical methods may result in additional costs or delay, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

As product candidates are developed through preclinical studies to later-stage clinical trials toward approval and future commercialization, it is common that various aspects of the development program, such as manufacturing methods, formulation or analytical methods, are altered in an effort to optimize processes and results. Any of these changes could cause our product candidates to perform differently and affect the results of planned clinical trials or other future clinical trials conducted with the altered materials or utilizing different analytical methods. Such changes also may require additional testing, or notification to, or authorization by, the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority. This could delay completion of clinical trials, require the conduct of bridging clinical trials or studies, require the repetition of one or more clinical trials, increase clinical trial costs, delay approval of our product candidates or jeopardize our ability to commence product sales and generate revenue.

Interim, top-line and preliminary data from our clinical trials that we announce or publish from time to time may change as more patient data become available and are subject to audit and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data. Data from our clinical trials reported as of a measurement date may not be predictive of the effect, if any, of our product candidates at any later measurement date.

From time to time, we may publish interim, top-line or preliminary data from our clinical trials. Preliminary and interim data from our clinical trials may change as more patient data become available. Preliminary or interim data from our clinical trials are not necessarily predictive of final results. Preliminary and interim data are subject to the risk that one or more of the clinical outcomes may materially change as patient enrollment continues, more patient data become available and we issue our final clinical trial report. Interim, top-line and preliminary data also remain subject to audit and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the preliminary data we previously published. As a result, preliminary, top-line and interim data should be viewed with caution until the final data are available. Moreover, in connection with any data that is presented, caution should be exercised in drawing any conclusions from a comparison of data that does not come from head-to-head analysis. Additionally, data from a clinical trial as of any measurement date are only reflective of observations in such clinical trial at such date and should not be unduly used to predict any effect at a later measurement date.

Adverse differences between interim, topline, or preliminary data and final data could significantly harm our business prospects. Further, disclosure of such data could result in volatility in the price of our common stock. Further, others, including regulatory agencies, may not accept or agree with our assumptions, estimates, calculations, conclusions or analyses or may interpret or weigh the importance of data differently, which could delay or prevent regulatory approval of, or limit commercial prospects for, the particular product candidate and harm our business prospects. In addition, the information we choose to publicly disclose regarding a particular study or clinical trial is based on what is typically extensive information, and you or others may not agree with what we determine is material or otherwise appropriate information to include in our disclosure, and any information we determine not to disclose may ultimately be deemed significant with respect to future decisions, conclusions, views, activities or otherwise regarding a particular product candidate or our business. If the preliminary and interim data that we report differ from actual results or if others, including regulatory authorities, disagree with the conclusions reached, our ability to obtain approval for, and commercialize, our product candidates may be harmed, which could harm our business, operating results, prospects or financial condition.

We may not realize the benefits of our current or future collaborations or licensing arrangements and may be unsuccessful in consummating future partnerships.

Our current or future collaborations or licensing arrangements may not be successful. Additionally, we may partner with third parties with respect to the clinical development and commercialization, if approved, of certain of our programs in certain regions outside the United States, and we may not be successful in identifying, negotiating and executing partnerships. The success of our collaboration arrangements will depend heavily on the efforts and activities of our collaborators. Collaborations are subject to numerous risks, which may include that:

Even if we complete the necessary clinical trials, we cannot predict when, or if, we will obtain regulatory approval to commercialize any product candidate in the United States or any other jurisdiction, and any such approval may be for a narrower indication than we seek.

Any product candidates we or our collaborators develop are subject to extensive governmental regulations relating to, among other things, research, testing, development, manufacturing, safety, efficacy, approval, record keeping, reporting, labeling, storage, pricing, advertising, promotion and distribution of drugs. Failure to obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate we may develop will prevent us from commercializing the product candidate in a given jurisdiction. Securing regulatory approval requires the submission of extensive preclinical and clinical data and supporting information to the various regulatory authorities for each therapeutic indication to establish the product candidate’s safety and efficacy. Securing regulatory approval also requires the submission of information about the product manufacturing process to, and inspection of manufacturing facilities by, the relevant regulatory authorities. Satisfaction of these and other regulatory requirements is costly, time consuming, uncertain and subject to unanticipated delays. It is possible that the product candidates we and our collaborators are developing will not obtain the regulatory approvals necessary for us or our collaborators to begin commercialization. Moreover, approval by the FDA does not ensure approval by any regulatory authority outside the U.S. and vice versa.

The time required to obtain FDA and other regulatory approvals is unpredictable but typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials, depending upon the type, complexity and novelty of the product candidate. The standards that the FDA and its foreign counterparts use when regulating us are not always applied in a predictable or uniform manner and can change over time. Any analysis we perform of data from non-clinical and clinical activities is subject to confirmation and interpretation by regulatory authorities, which could delay, limit or prevent regulatory approval. We or our collaborators may also encounter unexpected delays or increased costs due to new government regulations, for example, from future legislation or administrative action, or from changes in FDA policy during the period of product development, clinical trials and FDA regulatory review. It is impossible to predict whether legislative changes will be enacted, or whether FDA or foreign regulations, guidance or interpretations will be changed, or what the impact of such changes, if any, may be.

If we or our collaborators complete clinical development and submit a BLA or other marketing application to the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authority, such authorities may request additional clinical or other data or information in connection with the regulatory review of such marketing applications, including by issuing a complete response letter that may require that we or our collaborators submit additional clinical or other data or impose other conditions that must be met in order to secure approval of our or our collaborators’ marketing applications, such as further inspections or reviews of manufacturing facilities. Even if such data and information are submitted, or any such inspection is completed, the FDA or foreign regulatory authority may ultimately decide that the BLA or other marketing application does not satisfy the criteria for approval.

Regulatory authorities also may approve a product candidate for more limited indications than requested or they may impose significant limitations in the form of narrow indications, warnings or a REMS. These regulatory authorities may require labeling that includes precautions or contraindications with respect to conditions of use, or they may grant approval subject to the performance of costly post marketing clinical trials. In addition, regulatory authorities may not approve the labeling claims that we believe are necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of any product candidates we may develop, or they may grant approval or other marketing authorization contingent on the performance of costly additional clinical trials, including post-market clinical trials. Any of the foregoing scenarios could materially harm the commercial prospects for our product candidates and adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Our product candidates could fail to receive regulatory approval for many reasons, including the following:

Regulatory approval for our product candidates may not be obtained without lengthy delays, if at all. Any delay in obtaining, or inability to obtain, applicable regulatory approvals would prevent us from commercializing our product candidates.

Additionally, TRB-061, TRB-071 and our other product candidates may be regulated as a combination product that consists of both a therapeutic biologic and medical device for delivery such as a prefilled syringe or autoinjector. Developing and obtaining regulatory approval for combination products can pose unique challenges because they involve components that are regulated under different types of regulatory requirements and potentially by different FDA centers. As a result, such product candidates may raise regulatory, policy and review management challenges. Differences in regulatory pathways for each component of a combination product can impact the regulatory processes for all aspects of product development and management, including clinical investigation, marketing applications, manufacturing and quality control, adverse event reporting, promotion and advertising, user fees and post approval modifications. Although the FDA and similar foreign regulatory agencies have systems in place for the review and approval of combination products such as ours, we may experience delays in the development and commercialization of our product candidates due to regulatory timing constraints and uncertainties in the product development and approval process.

If we do not achieve our projected development goals in the timeframes we announce and expect, the commercialization of our products may be delayed.

From time to time, we may estimate the timing of the accomplishment of various scientific, clinical, regulatory, manufacturing and other product development goals. These milestones may include the commencement or completion of preclinical studies and clinical trials and the submission of regulatory filings, including IND and BLA submissions. From time to time, we may publicly announce the expected timing of such milestones. The achievement of these milestones is, and will be, based on a variety of assumptions. The actual timing of these milestones can vary significantly compared to our estimates, in some cases for reasons beyond our control. We may experience numerous unforeseen events during, or as a result of, any future clinical trials that we conduct that could delay or prevent our ability to receive regulatory approval or commercialize our product candidates.

We may develop our current or other product candidates in combination with other therapies, which would expose us to additional risks.

We may develop our current or potential other product candidates in combination with one or more currently approved therapies or therapies in development. Even if any of our current or other product candidates were to receive regulatory approval or be commercialized for use in combination with other existing therapies, we would continue to be subject to the risks that the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities could revoke approval of the therapy used in combination with any of our product candidates, or safety, efficacy, manufacturing or supply issues could arise with these existing therapies. In addition, it is possible that existing therapies with which our product candidates are approved for use could themselves fall out of favor or be relegated to later lines of treatment. This could result in the need to identify other combination therapies for our product candidates or our own products being removed from the market or being less successful commercially.

We may also evaluate our current or other product candidates in combination with one or more other therapies that have not yet been approved for marketing by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. We will not be able to market and sell any product candidate in combination with any such unapproved therapies that do not ultimately obtain regulatory approval. In addition, developing combination regimens may require that we adequately demonstrate the efficacy of each therapy within the combination regimen, which may prove difficult and otherwise require us to generate more data than we would in connection with a monotherapy program.

Furthermore, we cannot be certain that we will be able to obtain a steady supply of such therapies for use in developing combinations with our product candidates on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Any failure to obtain such therapies for use in clinical development and the expense of purchasing therapies in the market may delay our development timelines, increase our costs and jeopardize our ability to develop our product candidates as commercially viable therapies. If the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities do not approve or withdraw their approval of these other therapies, or, if safety, efficacy, commercial adoption, manufacturing or supply issues arise with the therapies we choose to evaluate in combination with any of our current or other product candidates, we may be unable to obtain approval of or successfully market any one or all of the current or other product candidates we develop. Additionally, if the third-party providers of therapies or therapies in development used in combination with our current or other product candidates are unable to produce sufficient quantities for

clinical trials or for commercialization of our current or other product candidates, or, if the cost of combination therapies are prohibitive, our development and commercialization efforts would be impaired, which would have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and growth prospects.

We may expend our limited resources to pursue a particular product candidate in specific indications and fail to capitalize on product candidates or indications that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited financial and managerial resources, we focus our development efforts on certain selected product candidates in certain selected indications. For example, we are initially focused on our clinical stage product candidate, TRB-061, for the treatment of moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis and other indications. As a result, we may forgo or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or other indications for our existing product candidates that later prove to have greater commercial potential. Additionally, negative clinical trial results with respect to one indication of a product candidate may impact the potential or perception of other indications of the product candidate. Our resource allocation decisions may result in our failure to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities. Our spending on current and future development programs and product candidates for specific indications may not yield any commercially viable product candidates. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights to such product candidate.

We are currently conducting, and may in the future conduct, clinical trials for current or other product candidates outside the United States, and the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities may not accept data from such trials.

We are currently conducting clinical trials outside the United States, including in Australia and New Zealand, and we expect to continue to conduct trials internationally in the future. The acceptance of data from clinical trials conducted outside the United States by the FDA, or data from clinical trials conducted outside a foreign jurisdiction by the applicable foreign regulatory authority, may be subject to certain conditions or may not be accepted at all. In cases where data from foreign clinical trials are intended to serve as the basis for approval in the United States, regardless of whether the applicable clinical trial was conducted pursuant to an IND, the FDA will generally not approve the application unless the data are applicable to the United States population and United States medical practice, the trials were performed by clinical investigators of recognized competence and pursuant to GCP and the FDA is able to validate the data through an onsite inspection or other appropriate means. In addition, even where the foreign study data are not intended to serve as the sole basis for approval, if the trial was not otherwise subject to an IND, the FDA will not accept the data as support for a submission unless the study was conducted in accordance with GCP requirements and the FDA is able to validate the data from the study through an onsite inspection if deemed necessary. Many foreign regulatory authorities have similar approval requirements. In addition, such foreign trials would be subject to the applicable local laws of the foreign jurisdictions where the trials are conducted. There can be no assurance that the FDA or any applicable foreign authority will accept data from trials conducted outside of the United States or the applicable jurisdiction.

Even where the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authority accepts such data, such regulatory authorities could require us to modify our planned clinical trials to receive allowance or authorization to initiate or continue such trials in the United States or the applicable foreign jurisdiction. If the FDA or any comparable foreign regulatory authority does not accept data from trials conducted outside of the United States or the applicable jurisdiction, such non-acceptance would result in the need for additional trials that could be costly and time-consuming and could result in the product candidate not receiving approval for commercialization in the applicable jurisdiction.

Conducting clinical trials outside the U.S. also exposes us to additional risks, including risks associated with:

Even if we receive regulatory approval for our current or other product candidates in the United States, we may never receive regulatory approval to market outside of the United States.

We plan to seek regulatory approval of our current or other product candidates outside of the United States including in the European Union (“EU”) and United Kingdom (“UK”). In order to market any product outside of the United States we must establish and comply with the numerous and varying safety, efficacy and other regulatory requirements of other applicable jurisdictions. Regulatory approval processes vary among countries but generally implicate all of the risks detailed above regarding FDA approval in the United States as well as other risks. The time required to obtain approvals in other countries might differ substantially from that required to obtain FDA approval and can require additional product candidate testing and additional administrative review periods. In many countries outside of the United States, products must receive pricing and reimbursement approval before the product can be commercialized. Obtaining this approval can result in substantial delays in bringing products to market in such countries. Regulatory approval in one country does not ensure regulatory approval in another, but a failure or delay in obtaining regulatory approval in one country may have a negative effect on the regulatory process in others and would impair our ability to market our current or other product candidates in such foreign markets. Any such impairment would limit the commercial potential of the product candidate, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

The successful commercialization of our product candidates, if approved, will depend in part on the extent to which governmental authorities, government health benefit programs, private health insurance and other third-party payors establish broad coverage, adequate reimbursement levels and favorable pricing of such product.

The availability of coverage and the adequacy of reimbursement by governmental healthcare authorities or programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, private health insurance and other third-party payors are essential for most patients to be able to afford prescription medications such as our product candidates, if approved. Our ability to achieve coverage and acceptable levels of reimbursement for any approved products will affect our ability to successfully commercialize those products. Even if we obtain coverage for a given product by a third-party payor, the reimbursement payment rates may not be adequate or may require co-payments that patients find unacceptably high.

No uniform policy for coverage and reimbursement for products exists among third-party payors in the U.S and there is significant uncertainty related to third-party payor coverage and reimbursement of newly approved products. The coverage determination process is often time consuming and costly and may require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our products to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage will be obtained. Third-party payors may not provide or may limit coverage or may control utilization (e.g., by requiring that patients try other therapies first or that prescribers obtain specific approval of coverage on a patient by patient basis).

Third-party payors may deny or establish payment for any marketed products at levels that are too low to enable us to realize an appropriate return on our investment in our product candidates. We may be required to provide discounts or rebates under government healthcare programs or to certain government and private purchasers in order to obtain coverage under federal healthcare programs such as Medicaid. More generally, we may need to offer price concessions to third-party payors to obtain favorable coverage or to purchasers to achieve sales.

Limited or no coverage or reimbursement or the offer of pricing concessions could have a negative impact on our ability to successfully commercialize any of our product candidates, if approved, and obtain a satisfactory financial return on our product candidates.

Outside the United States, international operations are generally subject to extensive governmental price controls and other market regulations, and we believe the increasing emphasis on cost-containment initiatives in Europe and other countries has and will continue to put pressure on the pricing and usage of products like our product candidates. In many countries, the prices of medical products are subject to varying price control mechanisms as part of national health systems. Other countries allow companies to fix their own prices for medical products but monitor and control company profits. Additional foreign price controls or other changes in pricing regulation could restrict the amount that we are able to charge for our product candidates, if approved. Accordingly, in markets outside the United States, the reimbursement for our product candidates may be lower than in the United States and may be insufficient to generate meaningful revenue and profits.

We may seek accelerated approval for some of our product candidates but may not be able to obtain it as the sufficiency of our clinical trial results for accelerated approval are subject to the FDA’s discretion.

We may explore strategies for our product candidates that involve use of the FDA’s accelerated approval pathway. Obtaining accelerated approval requires demonstration of meaningful benefit over available therapies for a serious condition. The determination of what constitutes available therapy is wholly up to the FDA and is subject to change. No assurance can be given that other therapeutics will not receive full approval prior to our potential receipt of accelerated approval. If that were to occur, no assurance can be given that we would be successful in proving meaningful benefit over those later approved products. If we were unable to prove meaningful benefit over any such agents, we would be effectively blocked from receiving

accelerated approval. If any of our drugs were ever to receive accelerated approval, we would be required to conduct a post-market confirmatory study, which we may not complete, or if completed, may prove unsuccessful. In such instance, the FDA can remove the product from the market.

We may seek fast track designation, breakthrough therapy designation and/or priority review designation from the FDA or similar designations from comparable foreign regulatory authorities for one or more of our product candidates. Even if one or more of our product candidates receive these designations, we may be unable to obtain or maintain the benefits associated with such designation.

The FDA has established various designations to facilitate more rapid and efficient development and approval of certain types of drugs intended to treat serious conditions that fill an unmet medical need. Such designations include fast track designation, breakthrough therapy designation, and priority review designation. The FDA has broad discretion whether or not to grant these designations, so even if we believe a particular product candidate is eligible for a designation, the FDA could decide not to grant it. If any of our programs or product candidates receive any of these designations by the FDA or similar designations by comparable foreign regulatory authorities, there is no assurance that we will receive any benefits from such programs or that we will continue to meet the criteria to maintain such designation. Even if we obtain such designations, we may not experience a faster development process, review or approval compared to conventional procedures. A grant of these designations does not ensure that a product candidate will receive marketing approval or that approval will be granted within any particular timeframe. In addition, the FDA may withdraw any such designation if it believes that the designation is no longer supported by data from our clinical development program.

The increasing use of social media platforms presents new risks and challenges.

Social media is increasingly being used to communicate about clinical development activities, and we intend to utilize appropriate social media in connection with our commercialization efforts of our product candidates, if approved. Social media practices in the biotechnology and biopharmaceutical industries continue to evolve and regulations and regulatory guidance relating to such use are evolving and not always clear. This evolution creates uncertainty and risk of noncompliance with regulations applicable to our business, resulting in potential regulatory actions against us, along with the potential for litigation related to off-label marketing, promotion of an unapproved new drug, false or misleading advertising, or other prohibited activities and heightened scrutiny by the FDA, the Federal Trade Commission (“FTC”), the SEC and other regulators. For example, patients may use social media channels to comment on their experience in an ongoing clinical trial or to report an alleged side effect or AE. If such disclosures occur, there is a risk that trial enrollment may be adversely impacted, that we may fail to monitor and comply with applicable AE reporting obligations or that we may not be able to defend our business or the public’s legitimate interests in the face of the political and market pressures generated by social media due to restrictions on what we may say about our product candidates. There is also a risk of inappropriate disclosure of sensitive, personal or confidential information or negative or inaccurate posts or comments about us on any social networking website. In addition, we may encounter attacks on social media regarding us, our management, or any of our current or other product candidates. If any of these events were to occur or we otherwise fail to comply with applicable regulations, we could incur liability, face regulatory actions, suffer reputational harm or incur other harm to our business.

Risks Related to Our Business and Operations

Our business depends entirely on the success of our product candidates, and we may fail to successfully develop, receive regulatory approval for, or successfully commercialize any or all of our product candidates.

We do not have any products approved for commercial sale. We have invested substantially all of our efforts and financial resources in the development of our product candidates, each of which is still in clinical development or preclinical studies, and we expect that we will continue to invest heavily in these product candidates and any other product candidates we may develop. Our business and our ability to generate revenue, which we do not expect will occur for many years, if ever, are substantially dependent on our ability to acquire, develop, obtain regulatory approval for and successfully commercialize our product candidates, which may never occur.

Our product candidates will require substantial additional clinical development time, regulatory approval, commercial manufacturing arrangements, establishment of a commercial organization, significant marketing efforts and further investment before we can generate any revenue from product sales. We may not meet our timelines for our current or future clinical trials, which may be delayed or not completed for a number of reasons. Our product candidates are susceptible to the risks of failure inherent at any stage of product development, including the appearance of unexpected AEs or failure to achieve primary endpoints in clinical trials.

Even if our product candidates are successful in clinical trials, we are not permitted to market or promote any product candidate before we receive regulatory approval from the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. If we do not receive FDA or comparable foreign regulatory approval with the necessary conditions to allow commercialization, we will not be able to generate revenue from those product candidates in the United States or elsewhere in the foreseeable future, or at all.

We have never submitted a BLA for our product candidates to the FDA, or a similar marketing application to a comparable foreign regulatory authority, and our current or any other product candidates may not be successful in clinical trials or receive regulatory approval.

If approved for marketing by applicable regulatory authorities, our ability to generate revenue from our product candidates will depend on our ability to:

Any significant delays in obtaining approval for or inability to successfully commercialize our product candidates would adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

We are dependent on the services of our senior management and other clinical and scientific personnel, and if we are not able to retain these individuals or recruit additional management or clinical and scientific personnel, our business will suffer.

Our success depends in part on our continued ability to attract, retain and motivate highly qualified management, clinical and scientific personnel. We are highly dependent upon the members of our senior management and clinical development teams. The loss of services of any of these individuals could delay or prevent the successful development of our product pipeline, initiation or completion of our preclinical studies and clinical trials or the commercialization of our product candidates, if approved. Although we have executed employment agreements or offer letters with each member of our senior management team, these agreements are terminable at will with or without notice and, therefore, we may not be able to retain their services. We do not currently maintain “key person” life insurance on the lives of our executives or any of our employees. This lack of insurance means that we may not have adequate compensation for the loss of the services of these individuals.

We will need to expand and effectively manage our managerial, operational, financial and other resources in order to successfully pursue our clinical development and commercialization efforts. We may not be successful in maintaining our company culture and continuing to attract or retain qualified management and scientific and clinical personnel in the future due to the intense competition for qualified personnel among biopharmaceutical, biotechnology and other businesses. If we are not able to attract, integrate, retain and motivate personnel necessary to accomplish our business objectives, we may experience constraints that significantly impede the achievement of our development objectives, our ability to raise additional capital and our ability to implement our business strategy.

We will need to grow our organization, and we may experience difficulties in managing our growth and expanding our operations, which could adversely affect our business.

As of August 31, 2026, we had 60 full-time employees. As our development and commercialization plans and strategies develop, and as we transition into operating as a public company, we expect to expand our employee base for managerial, operational, financial and other resources. As our product candidates enter and advance through preclinical studies and clinical trials, we will need to expand our development and regulatory capabilities and contract with third parties to provide manufacturing and other capabilities for us. In the future, we expect to have to manage additional relationships with collaborators or partners, suppliers and other organizations. Our ability to manage our operations and future growth will require us to continue to improve our operational, financial and management controls, reporting systems and procedures, and we may not be able to implement improvements in an efficient or timely manner or may discover deficiencies in existing systems and controls. Our inability to successfully manage our growth and expand our operations could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

The manufacturing of our product candidates is complex, and our third-party manufacturers may encounter difficulties in production. If our third-party manufacturers encounter such difficulties, our ability to provide supply of our product candidates for clinical trials, our ability to obtain regulatory approval, or provide commercial supply of our products, if approved, could be delayed or halted.

Our product candidates are biopharmaceuticals and the process of manufacturing biopharmaceuticals is complex, time-consuming, highly regulated and subject to multiple risks. Our CMOs must comply with legal requirements, current Good Manufacturing Practices requirements (“cGMPs”) and guidelines for the manufacturing of biopharmaceuticals used in clinical trials and, if approved, marketed products. Our CMOs may have limited experience in the manufacturing of cGMP batches of our products.

Manufacturing biopharmaceuticals is highly susceptible to drug product loss due to contamination, equipment failure, improper installation or operation of equipment, vendor or operator error, inconsistency in yields, variability in product characteristics and difficulties in scaling the production process. The impact of drug product loss is compounded by the long lead times needed to procure additional drug product due to plant capacity limitations or other restrictions at our CMOs. Even minor deviations from normal manufacturing processes could result in reduced production yields, lot failures, product defects, product liability claims, or other supply disruptions. If microbial, viral or other contaminations are discovered at our third-party manufacturers’ facilities, such facilities may need to be closed for an extended period of time to investigate and remedy the contamination, which could delay clinical trials and adversely affect our business. Problems in third-party manufacturing process or facilities could restrict our ability to ensure sufficient clinical material for our clinical trials or delay or prevent us from obtaining regulatory approval.

Scaling up a biopharmaceutical manufacturing process is a difficult and uncertain task and involves additional risks, including cost overruns, process scale-up, process reproducibility, stability issues, compliance with cGMPs, lot consistency and timely availability of sufficient quantity of raw materials. Even if we obtain regulatory approval for any of our product candidates, manufacturers may not be able to manufacture the approved product to specifications acceptable to the FDA or other comparable foreign regulatory authorities, to produce it in sufficient quantities to meet the requirements for the potential launch of the product or to meet potential future demand. If our third-party manufacturers are unable to adequately validate or scale-up the manufacturing process at our current manufacturers’ facilities, we will need to transfer to another manufacturer and complete the manufacturing validation process, which can be a lengthy and expensive process. If our manufacturers are unable to produce sufficient quantities of drug substance and/or drug product for clinical trials or for commercialization we will need to identify and negotiate with other CMOs an agreement for clinical and/or commercial supply, and it is not certain we will be able to come to agreement timely or on terms acceptable to us, which would likely jeopardize our ability to provide any product candidates to study subjects in clinical trials and products to patients, if approved.

Any delay or interruption in clinical trial supplies will likely delay the completion of planned clinical trials, increase the costs associated with maintaining clinical trial programs and, depending upon the period of delay, could require new clinical trials at additional expense or terminate clinical trials completely. Any adverse developments affecting clinical or commercial manufacturing of our product candidates or products may result in shipment delays, inventory shortages, lot failures, product withdrawals or recalls, or other interruptions in the supply of our product candidates or products. We may also have to take inventory write-offs and incur other charges and expenses for product candidates or products that fail to meet specifications, undertake costly remediation efforts or seek more costly manufacturing alternatives. Accordingly, failures or difficulties faced at any level of our supply chain could adversely affect our business and delay or impede the development and commercialization of any of our product candidates or products, if approved, and could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

As part of our process development efforts, we also may make changes to the manufacturing processes at various points during development, for various reasons, such as controlling costs, achieving scale, decreasing processing time, increasing manufacturing success rate, proximity to global regions we intend to target or other reasons. Such changes may not achieve their intended objectives, and any of these changes could cause our current or other product candidates to perform differently or affect the results of our future clinical trials. In some circumstances, changes in the manufacturing process require us to perform ex vivo comparability studies and to collect additional data from participants prior to undertaking more advanced clinical trials. For instance, changes in our process during the course of clinical development may require us to show the comparability of the product used in earlier clinical phases or at earlier portions of a clinical trial to the product used in later clinical phases or later portions of the clinical trial. This could delay completion of clinical trials, require the conduct of bridging clinical trials or the repetition of one or more clinical trials, increase clinical trial costs, delay approval of our product candidates and jeopardize our ability to commence sales and generate revenue.

We currently have no marketing, sales or distribution capabilities, and we may need to invest significant resources to develop these capabilities. If we are unable to establish marketing, sales or distribution capabilities or enter into agreements with third parties to perform such activities, we may not be able to generate product revenue.

We currently have no marketing, sales or distribution capabilities, nor have we commercialized a product, and we may need to invest significant resources to develop these capabilities. If we are unable to establish marketing, sales or distribution capabilities or enter into agreements with third parties to perform such activities, we may not be able to generate product revenue. If any of our product candidates ultimately receives regulatory approval, we will be required to build a marketing and sales organization with technical expertise and supporting distribution capabilities to commercialize each such product in the markets that we target, which will be expensive and time-consuming, or to collaborate with third parties that have direct sales forces and established distribution systems, either to augment our own sales force and distribution systems or in lieu of our own sales force and distribution systems. We have no prior experience as a company in the marketing, sale and distribution of pharmaceutical products and there are significant risks involved in building and managing a sales organization, including our ability to hire, retain and incentivize qualified individuals, generate sufficient sales leads, provide adequate training to sales and marketing personnel and effectively manage a geographically dispersed sales and marketing team. Furthermore, we are currently developing product candidates for multiple indications in different medical specialties, which will require us to build different sales and marketing capabilities that are tailored to a given product or medical specialty. Any failure or delay in the development of our internal sales, marketing and distribution capabilities would adversely impact the commercialization of these products. We may not be able to enter into collaborations or hire consultants or external service providers to assist us in sales, marketing and distribution functions on acceptable financial terms, or at all. In addition, our product revenues and our profitability, if any, may be lower if we rely on third parties for these functions than if we were to market, sell and distribute any products that we develop ourselves. We likely will have little control over such third parties, and any of them may fail to devote the necessary resources and attention to sell and market our products effectively. If the commercial launch of a product candidate for which we recruit a sales force and establish marketing capabilities is delayed or does not occur for any reason, we would have prematurely or unnecessarily incurred these commercialization expenses. If we are not successful in commercializing our products, either on our own or through arrangements with one or more third parties, we may not be able to generate any future product revenue and we would incur significant additional losses.

Revenue from our product candidates, if approved, will be limited if the product does not achieve broad market acceptance.

As a company, we have never commercialized a product candidate for any indication. Even if a product candidate is approved by the appropriate regulatory authorities for marketing and sale, it may not gain acceptance among physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community. If any product candidate for which we obtain regulatory approval does not gain an adequate level of market acceptance, we may not generate sufficient product revenue or become profitable.

The degree of market acceptance of any of our product candidates will depend on a number of factors, some of which are beyond our control, including:

Our efforts to educate the medical community and third-party payors as to the benefits of our product candidates may require significant resources and may never be successful. Even if the medical community accepts that our product candidates are safe and effective for their approved indications, physicians and patients may not be receptive to such product candidates and may be slow to adopt them as an accepted treatment. If our current or other product candidates are approved, but do not achieve an adequate level of acceptance among physicians, patients and third-party payors, we may not generate meaningful revenue from our product candidates and may never become profitable.

Misconduct or other improper actions, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements, by our employees, independent contractors, consultants, commercial partners and vendors exposes us to potential noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements.

Fraud or other illegal activity by our employees, independent contractors, consultants, commercial partners, vendors and any other third parties we may engage in connection with any research, development, regulatory manufacturing, distribution or marketing activities exposes us to liability. Misconduct by these parties could result from intentional, reckless and/or negligent conduct or unauthorized activities that violate various laws, including failure to comply with FDA or other regulations, provide true, complete and accurate information to the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, comply with manufacturing standards we may establish, comply with healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations, report financial information or data accurately or disclose unauthorized activities to us. If we obtain FDA approval of any of our product candidates and begin commercializing those products in the United States, our potential exposure under these laws will increase significantly, as will our costs associated with compliance. In particular, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. Misconduct could also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of clinical trials or creation of fraudulent data in preclinical studies or clinical trials, which could result in regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation, as well as delay or prevent our ability to obtain or maintain regulatory approval for our product candidates.

Additionally, a person could allege fraud or other misconduct even if none occurred. It is not always possible to identify and deter employee misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling known or unknown risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to comply with such laws or regulations. Any such actions instituted against us could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, including the imposition of significant civil, criminal or administrative penalties, damages, fines, disgorgement, imprisonment, the curtailment or restructuring of our operations, loss of eligibility to obtain approvals from the FDA, exclusion from participation in government contracting, healthcare reimbursement or other government programs, including Medicare and Medicaid, integrity oversight and reporting obligations, or reputational harm.

The estimates of commercial opportunities for product candidates and forecasts of market growth included in this prospectus may prove to be smaller than we believe, and even if the markets in which we compete achieve the forecasted growth, our business may not grow at similar rates, or at all.

We intend to initially focus our product candidate development on treatments for various autoimmune and inflammatory indications. Our projections of addressable patient populations within any particular disease state that may benefit from treatment with our product candidates are based on our estimates. Market opportunity estimates and growth forecasts included in this prospectus are subject to significant uncertainty and are based on assumptions and estimates. These estimates, which have been derived from a variety of sources, including scientific literature, surveys of clinics, patient foundations and market research, may prove to be incorrect in general or as to their applicability to our company. Further, new studies or trials may change the estimated incidence or prevalence of these diseases.

Additionally, the potentially addressable patient population for our product candidates may not ultimately be amenable to treatment with our product candidates. Our commercial opportunity may also be limited by future competitor treatments that enter the market with such patients. If any of our estimates prove to be inaccurate, the commercial opportunity for any product candidate that we or our strategic partners develop could be significantly diminished and have an adverse material impact on our business. Even if we obtain significant market share for our product candidates, because some of our potential target populations are very small, we may never achieve profitability despite obtaining such significant market share.

Our future growth may depend, in part, on our ability to commercialize products in foreign markets, where we would be subject to additional regulatory burdens and other risks and uncertainties.

Our future growth may depend, in part, on our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates in foreign markets. We are not permitted to market or promote any of our product candidates before we receive regulatory approval from applicable regulatory authorities in foreign markets, and we may never receive such regulatory approvals for any of our product candidates. To obtain separate regulatory approval in many other countries we must comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements regarding safety and efficacy and governing, among other things, clinical trials, commercial sales, pricing and distribution of our product candidates. If we fail to comply with the regulatory requirements in international markets or fail to receive applicable marketing approvals, our ability to realize the full commercial potential of our product candidates will be harmed. Failure to obtain approval of any of our product candidates by regulatory authorities in another country may significantly diminish the commercial prospects of that product candidate and our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects could be adversely affected. Moreover, even if we obtain regulatory approval of our product candidates and ultimately commercialize our products in foreign markets, we would be subject to additional risks and uncertainties, including:

Strategic transactions could impact our liquidity, increase our expenses and present significant distractions to our management.

We may enter into strategic transactions, which could include acquisitions of companies, asset purchases and in-licensing and out-licensing of intellectual property. We have entered into a research and collaboration agreement with Lilly pursuant to which Lilly is advancing TRB-051 in a clinical study for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. The expected synergies in development programs, pipelines and other areas of focus between us and our licensors and collaborators may not be realized on a timely basis or at all, and there may be risks associated with these transactions that we did not previously anticipate, such as unanticipated liabilities.

We also may enter into a variety of other business arrangements, including strategic collaborations, joint ventures, restructurings, divestitures, business combinations and investments. Any future transactions could increase our near and long-term expenditures, result in potentially dilutive issuances of our equity securities, including our common stock, or the incurrence of debt, contingent liabilities, amortization expenses or acquired in-process research and development expenses, any of which could affect our business, financial condition, liquidity and results of operations.

Future acquisitions may require us to obtain additional financing, which may not be available on favorable terms or at all. These transactions may never be successful and may require significant time and attention of our management. In addition, the integration of any business or assets may be disruptive, complex, risky and costly and we may never realize the full benefits of the acquisition.

Recent and future changes to tax laws could adversely affect our company.

The tax regimes we are subject to or operate under, including with respect to income and non-income taxes, are unsettled and may be subject to significant change. Changes in tax laws, regulations, or rulings, or changes in interpretations of existing laws and regulations, could adversely affect our company. For example, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (the “IRA”), and the One Big Beautiful Bill Act, introduced many significant changes to the United States tax laws. Future guidance from the Internal Revenue Service and other tax authorities with respect to such legislation may affect us, and certain aspects thereof could be repealed or modified in future legislation. For example, the IRA includes provisions that will impact the United States federal income taxation of certain corporations, including imposing a 15% minimum tax on the book income of certain large corporations and a 1% excise tax on certain corporate stock repurchases that would be imposed on the corporation repurchasing such stock.

Additionally, the U.S. government may enact other significant changes to the taxation of business entities including, among others, an increase in the corporate income tax rate, the imposition of minimum taxes or surtaxes on certain types of income, significant changes to the taxation of income derived from international operations, and further limitations on the deductibility of business interest.

We are unable to predict what changes to the tax laws of the United States and other jurisdictions may be proposed or enacted in the future or what effect such changes would have on our business. New, changed, modified, or newly interpreted or applied tax laws could increase our compliance, operating, and other costs. Further, these events could decrease the capital we have available to operate our business. Any of these or similar developments or changes to tax laws or rulings (which changes may apply retroactively) could adversely affect our effective tax rate and our results of operations and financial condition.

If our internal information technology systems, or those used by our CROs, CDMOs, clinical sites or other third parties, are or were compromised, become unavailable or suffer security incidents, loss or leakage of data or other disruptions, we could suffer material adverse consequences, including operational or service interruption, harm to our reputation, litigation, fines, penalties, compromise of sensitive information related to our business and other adverse consequences.

In the ordinary course of our business, we, and the third parties upon which we rely, process sensitive data including proprietary and confidential business data, trade secrets, intellectual property, data we collect about trial participants in connection with clinical trials, and other sensitive third-party data (collectively, confidential information). We also rely on computer systems, hardware, software, technology infrastructure and online sites and networks for both internal and external operations that are critical to our business (collectively, “IT systems”). We own and manage some of these IT systems but also rely on third parties for a range of IT systems and related products and services, including cloud computing services.

Our IT systems and those of our CROs, CDMOs, clinical sites and other contractors and consultants, and the confidential information within these systems, are vulnerable to cyberattacks, computer viruses, bugs, worms, or other malicious codes, malware (including as a result of advanced persistent threat intrusions) and other attacks by computer hackers, cracking, application security attacks, social engineering (including through phishing attacks), supply chain attacks and vulnerabilities through our third-party service providers, denial-of-service attacks (such as credential stuffing), credential harvesting, ransomware attacks, personnel misconduct or error, supply-chain attacks, software bugs, server malfunctions, software or hardware failures, loss of data or other information technology assets, adware, telecommunications failures, earthquakes, fires, floods and other similar threats.

Such threats are prevalent and continue to rise, are increasingly difficult to detect and come from a variety of sources, including traditional computer “hackers,” threat actors, “hacktivists,” organized criminal threat actors, personnel (such as through theft or misuse), AI-driven bots, sophisticated nation states and nation-state-supported actors. In particular, ransomware attacks, including those from organized criminal threat actors, nation-states and nation-state supported actors, are becoming increasingly prevalent and severe and can lead to significant interruptions, delays, or outages in our operations, loss of confidential information, loss of income, significant extra expenses to restore IT systems or confidential information, reputational loss and the diversion of funds. To alleviate the negative impact of a ransomware attack, it may be preferable to make extortion payments, but we may be unwilling or unable to do so (including, for example, if applicable laws or regulations prohibit such payments, or our insurance carrier objects to payment).

Some actors, including nation-state actors, also engage in cyber-attacks for geopolitical reasons and in conjunction with military conflicts and defense activities. During times of war and other major conflicts, we and the third parties upon which we rely are vulnerable to a heightened risk of these attacks, including cyber-attacks, that could materially disrupt our systems and operations, supply chain, critical infrastructure, and ability to conduct our development activities, including clinical trials. Nation-state weapons may also impact us even if we are not targeted. In addition to experiencing a security incident, third parties may gather, collect or infer sensitive information about us from public sources or other means that reveals competitively sensitive details about our organization and could be used against us.

Additionally, remote work increases risks to our IT systems and confidential information, as more of our employees utilize network connections, computers and devices outside our premises or network, including working at home, while in transit and in public locations. We may be vulnerable to attacks as a result of vulnerabilities introduced through our supply chain, including vendors we engage to provide us with security and other technologies, or to the critical infrastructure that supports communications, transportation, and payments.

Furthermore, future or past business transactions (such as acquisitions or integrations) could expose us to additional cybersecurity risks and vulnerabilities present in acquired or integrated entities’ systems and technologies, including security issues that are not identified during due diligence. Additionally, it may be difficult to integrate companies into our IT systems and security program.

We may not be able to detect and remediate all vulnerabilities and the threats and techniques used to exploit such vulnerabilities change frequently and are often sophisticated in nature. AI-driven cyber-attackers may be able to create, find, or exploit vulnerabilities faster than our systems can respond, even if our defenses are also using AI-driven systems. Therefore, vulnerabilities could be exploited but may not be detected until after a security incident has occurred. Further, we may experience delays in developing and deploying remedial measures designed to address any such identified vulnerabilities.

We rely on third-party service providers and technologies to operate critical business systems to process confidential information in a variety of contexts, including cloud-based infrastructure, encryption and authentication technology, employee email and other functions. We also rely on third-party service providers to assist with our clinical trials, provide other products or services or otherwise to operate our business. Our ability to perform diligence on or monitor third parties’ information security practices is limited, and third parties may not have adequate information security measures in place. If our third-party service providers experience a security incident or other interruption, we could experience adverse consequences. While we may be entitled to damages if our third-party service providers fail to satisfy their privacy or security-related obligations to us, any award may be insufficient to cover our damages, insurance may not be available, or we may be unable to recover such award. If the IT systems of our CROs, CDMOs, clinical sites and other contractors and consultants become subject to disruptions or security incidents, we may have insufficient recourse against such third parties and we may have to expend significant resources to mitigate the impact of such an event, and to develop and implement protections to prevent future events of this nature from occurring. In addition, supply-chain attacks have increased in frequency and severity, and we cannot guarantee that third parties and infrastructure in our supply chain or our third-party partners’ supply chains have not been compromised or that they do not contain exploitable defects or bugs that could result in a breach of or disruption to our IT systems (including our services) or the third-party IT systems that support us.

A security incident or other interruption could result in unauthorized, unlawful or accidental acquisition, modification, destruction, loss, alteration, encryption, disclosure of, or access to our confidential information or our IT systems, or those of the third parties upon whom we rely, any of which could disrupt our ability (and that of third parties upon whom we rely) to advance clinical development or commercial activities for any products, if approved. For example, the loss of clinical trial data from completed or ongoing clinical trials could result in delays in our regulatory approval efforts, significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data or limit our ability to effectively execute a product recall, if required. In addition, we could incur liability if any disruption or security incident results in the loss of or damage to our confidential information or applications. Applicable data privacy and security obligations also may require us to notify relevant stakeholders of security incidents. Such disclosures are costly, and the disclosure or the failure to comply with such requirements could lead to adverse consequences. A disruption or security incident could result in legal claims or proceedings, liability under laws that protect the privacy of personal information and significant regulatory penalties, damage to our reputation or a loss of confidence in us and our ability to conduct clinical trials, and/or significant incident response, system restoration or remediation and future

compliance costs, which could delay the clinical development of our product candidates. Any or all of the foregoing could materially adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition. Finally, we cannot guarantee that any costs and liabilities incurred in relation to an attack or incident will be covered by our existing insurance policies or that applicable insurance will be available to us in the future on economically reasonable terms or at all.

Our business entails a significant risk of product liability and our ability to obtain sufficient insurance coverage could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

As we conduct clinical trials of our current or other product candidates, we are exposed to significant product liability risks inherent in the development, testing, manufacturing and marketing of new therapies. Product liability claims could delay or prevent completion of our development programs. If we succeed in obtaining approval to market any product candidate, product liability claims could result in FDA or other investigation of the safety and effectiveness of our other product candidates, our manufacturing processes and facilities or our marketing programs and potentially a recall of our products or more serious enforcement action, limitations on the approved indications for which they may be used or suspension or withdrawal of approvals. Regardless of the merits or eventual outcome, liability claims may also result in decreased demand for our product candidates, termination of clinical trial sites or entire trial programs, withdrawal of clinical trial participants or inability to enroll participants, injury to our reputation and significant negative media attention, significant costs to defend the related litigation, a diversion of management’s time and our resources from our business operations, substantial monetary awards to trial participants or patients, loss of revenue, the inability to commercialize and products that we may develop, and a decline in our stock price. We may require higher levels of product liability insurance for later stages of clinical development or marketing any of our product candidates, and our insurance may not provide sufficient coverage against potential liabilities. Furthermore, clinical trial and product liability insurance is becoming increasingly expensive. As a result, we may be unable to obtain sufficient insurance at a reasonable cost to protect us against losses caused by product liability claims that could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Public opinion and scrutiny of autoimmune and inflammatory disease treatments may impact public perception of our company and product candidates, or may adversely affect our ability to conduct our business and our business plans.

Public perception may be influenced by claims, such as claims that our product candidates are unsafe, unethical or immoral and, consequently, our approach may not gain the acceptance of the public or the medical community. Negative public reaction to autoimmune and inflammatory disease treatments in general could result in greater government regulation and stricter labeling requirements of products to treat autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, including any of our product candidates, if approved, and could cause a decrease in the demand for any product candidates we may develop. Moreover, our success will depend upon physicians specializing in the treatment of those diseases that our product candidates target prescribing, and their patients being willing to receive, treatments that involve the use of our product candidates in lieu of, or in addition to, existing treatments they are already familiar with and for which greater clinical data may be available. AEs in our clinical trials, even if not ultimately attributable to our product candidates, and the resulting publicity could result in withdrawal of clinical trial participants or impact our ability to enroll participants or lead to increased governmental regulation, unfavorable public perception, potential regulatory delays in the testing or approval of our product candidates, stricter labeling requirements for those product candidates that are approved and a decrease in demand for any such product candidates. More restrictive government regulations or negative public opinion could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, and may delay or impair the development and, if approved, commercialization of our product candidates or demand for any products we may develop.

We or the third parties upon whom we depend may be adversely affected by earthquakes, fires or other natural disasters and our business continuity and disaster recovery plans may not adequately protect us from a serious disaster.

If earthquakes, fires, other natural disasters, terrorism and similar events beyond our control prevent us from using all or a significant portion of our headquarters or other facilities, it may be difficult or, in certain cases, impossible for us to continue our business for a substantial period of time. We may incur substantial expenses as a result of the absence or limited nature of our internal or third-party service provider disaster recovery and business continuity plans, which could have a material adverse effect on our business. In addition, the long-term effects of climate change on general economic conditions and the pharmaceutical manufacturing and distribution industry in particular are unclear, and changes in the supply, demand or available sources of energy and the regulatory and other costs associated with energy production and delivery may affect the availability or cost of goods and services, including raw materials and other natural resources, necessary to run our business. If such an event were to affect our supply chain, it could have a material adverse effect on our ability to conduct our clinical trials, our development plans and business.

Risks Related to Government Regulation

Even if we receive regulatory approval for any of our product candidates, we will be subject to ongoing regulatory obligations and continued regulatory review, which may result in significant additional expense. Additionally, our product candidates, if approved, could be subject to labeling and other restrictions and market withdrawal. We may also be subject to penalties if we fail to comply with regulatory requirements or experience unanticipated problems with our product candidates.

Any regulatory approvals that we or our existing or future collaborators obtain for our product candidates may also be subject to limitations on the approved indicated uses for which a product may be marketed or to the conditions of approval or contain requirements for potentially costly post-marketing testing and surveillance to monitor the safety and efficacy of the product candidate.

In addition, if the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority approves any of our product candidates, the manufacturing processes, labeling, packaging, distribution, post-approval monitoring and adverse event reporting, storage, import, export, advertising, promotion and record keeping for the product will be subject to extensive and ongoing regulatory requirements. The FDA has significant post-market authority, including the authority to require labeling changes based on new safety information, to require post-market studies or clinical trials to evaluate safety risks related to the use of a product, or to require withdrawal of the product from the market. The FDA also has the authority to require a REMS plan after approval, which may impose further requirements or restrictions on the distribution or use of an approved drug, including biologics. The manufacturing facilities we use to make a future product, if any, will also be subject to periodic review and inspection by the FDA and other regulatory authorities, including for continued compliance with cGMPs. The discovery of any new or previously unknown problems with our third-party manufacturers, manufacturing processes or facilities may result in restrictions on the product, manufacturer or facility, including withdrawal of the product from the market. We will not have complete control over compliance with applicable rules and regulations by such manufacturers.

The FDA and other regulatory agencies closely regulate the post-approval marketing and promotion of products to ensure that they are marketed only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved labeling. Although physicians are generally permitted, based on their medical judgment, to prescribe products for indications other than those approved by the applicable regulatory agency, manufacturers are prohibited from promoting their products for such off-label uses. If we promote our products in a manner inconsistent with FDA-approved labeling or otherwise not in compliance with FDA regulations, we may be subject to enforcement action, including issuance of a warning or untitled letter, injunction, seizure, and significant fines and criminal penalties. The United States federal government has levied large civil and criminal fines against companies for alleged improper promotion of off-label use and has enjoined several companies from engaging in off-label promotion. The government has also required companies to enter into consent decrees or permanent injunctions under which specified promotional conduct is changed or curtailed. Even if it is later determined we were not in violation of these laws, we may be faced with negative publicity, incur significant expenses defending our actions, and have to divert significant management resources from other matters.

The failure by us or our collaborators to comply with applicable regulatory requirements in the United States or foreign jurisdictions in which we seek to market our product candidates may result in, among other things, fines, warning or untitled letters, holds on clinical trials, delay of approval or refusal by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities to approve pending applications or supplements to approved applications, suspension or withdrawal of regulatory approval, product recalls and seizures, administrative detention of products, refusal to permit the import or export of products, operating restrictions, injunction, civil penalties and criminal prosecution. The occurrence of any such event or penalty may inhibit our ability to commercialize our product candidates and generate revenue and could require us to expend significant time and resources in response, and could generate negative publicity.

Moreover, the FDA’s and other regulatory authorities’ policies may change and additional government regulations may be promulgated that could prevent, limit or delay marketing authorization of any product candidates we develop. We also cannot predict the likelihood, nature or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative action, either in the United States or abroad. If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, we may be subject to enforcement action and we may not achieve or sustain profitability.

Disruptions at the FDA and other government agencies, including as a result of funding shortages or staffing limitations, could hinder their ability to hire, retain or deploy key leadership and other personnel or otherwise prevent product candidates from being developed, approved or commercialized in a timely manner or at all, which could negatively impact our business.

The ability of the FDA and applicable foreign authorities to review and approve new product candidates can be affected by a variety of factors, including government budget and funding levels, ability to hire and retain key personnel and accept the payment of user fees and statutory, regulatory and policy changes. Average review times at the FDA have fluctuated in recent years as a result. In addition, government funding of other government agencies that fund research and development activities is subject to the political process, which is inherently fluid and unpredictable.

Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies may also slow the time necessary for new drugs to be reviewed and approved by necessary government agencies, which would adversely affect our business. For example, over the last several years, the U.S. government shut down several times and certain regulatory agencies, such as the FDA, furloughed or laid off critical employees and ceased critical activities. Additionally, the current U.S. presidential administration has issued certain policies and Executive Orders directed towards reducing the employee headcount and costs associated with administrative agencies, including the FDA, which have led to substantial personnel changes, and it remains unclear the degree to which these efforts or the resulting changes in FDA personnel may limit or otherwise adversely affect the FDA’s ability to conduct routine activities. If a prolonged government shutdown occurs, or if funding shortages or staffing limitations hinder or prevent the FDA or other regulatory authorities from conducting their regular inspections, reviews, or other regulatory activities, such events could significantly impact the ability of the FDA or other such regulatory authorities to timely review and process our regulatory submissions, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Recently enacted legislation, future legislation and other healthcare reform measures may increase the difficulty and cost for us to obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize our product candidates and may affect the prices we set.

In the United States and some foreign jurisdictions, there have been, and likely will continue to be, a number of legislative and regulatory changes and proposed changes regarding the healthcare system directed at broadening the availability of healthcare, improving the quality of healthcare and containing or lowering the cost of healthcare. For example, in March 2010, the United States Congress enacted the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended, the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act (the “Affordable Care Act”), which, among other things, expanded health care coverage through Medicaid expansion and included a number of changes to the coverage and reimbursement of drug products under government healthcare programs.

Other health care reform initiatives, including legislative, administrative and executive actions, have taken place in the United States since the Affordable Care Act was enacted. A number of changes have focused on drug pricing and payment. For example, changes to Medicaid effective in 2024 eliminated the statutory cap on drug manufacturers’ Medicaid drug rebate liability and changes to certain Medicare price reporting requirements for drugs beginning in 2026 will likely increase the administrative and compliance burden for manufacturers. More broadly, the IRA includes a number of changes intended to address rising prescription drug prices in Medicare Parts B and D. These changes include caps on Medicare Part D out-of-pocket costs, Medicare Part B and Part D drug price inflation rebates, a new Medicare Part D manufacturer discount drug program (replacing the Affordable Care Act Medicare Part D coverage gap discount program) and a drug price negotiation program for certain high spend Medicare Part B and D drugs (with negotiated prices for the first set of drugs taking effect in 2026). The IRA has had and will likely continue to have significant impact on the pharmaceutical industry.

In April 2025, President Trump issued an Executive Order with multiple directives aimed at lowering drug prices, including refining the Medicare drug price negotiation program established by the IRA; accelerating competition for high-cost prescription drugs by accelerating approval of generics and biosimilars and facilitating the process for re-classifying prescription drugs as over-the-counter drugs; and increasing drug importation. In May 2025, President Trump issued another executive order that directed government agencies and officials to identify most-favored nation pricing targets for prescription drugs (and looked to pharmaceutical manufacturers to make significant progress towards delivering target prices to patients); prevent foreign countries from disproportionately shifting the cost of global pharmaceutical research and development to the United States; and facilitate direct-to-consumer purchasing programs for pharmaceutical manufacturers to sell their products to patients at the most-favored-nation price. In the wake of the executive orders and related executive initiatives, a number of pharmaceutical manufacturers announced direct-to-consumer offerings with discounted prices and/or reached agreement with the federal government regarding pricing for drugs, including prices for Medicaid drugs and newly launched products. A website sponsored by the federal government offers pharmaceutical direct-to-consumer channels has also been launched. Federal agencies are developing new drug pricing pilot programs, such as a voluntary Medicaid initiative which would authorize the federal government to negotiate Medicaid supplemental rebates with participating manufacturers on behalf of state Medicaid programs, in exchange for standardized coverage criteria for participating manufacturer drugs, and proposed Medicare Part B and Part D pilot models that, if finalized as proposed, would replace existing inflation-based Medicare rebates with rebates determined on the basis of international prices, for drugs and patients subject to the model. Many of these reform initiatives would require additional legal and/or administrative action to implement and may be subject to legal challenge.

Other federal healthcare reform efforts or actions may affect access to healthcare coverage or the funding of health care benefits, although the full impact of such efforts or actions cannot be predicted. For example, the One Big Beautiful Bill Act of 2025 imposed significant reductions in Medicaid funding, additional work requirements for certain Medicaid beneficiaries and more frequent eligibility redeterminations. These changes are expected to place increased pressure on state Medicaid budgets and could reduce enrollment, utilization and reimbursement levels for prescription drugs, including our products, which could adversely affect our business.

Other more general federal government actions may also affect prices or payments for prescription drugs. For example, federal legislation passed in early 2026 is intended to reform the pharmacy benefit manager industry by restricting compensation and requiring greater transparency and is anticipated to have an impact on drug pricing and market access. As another example, President Trump issued an executive order in April 2026 to establish a tariff framework for certain patented pharmaceuticals and associated pharmaceutical ingredients, with some tariffs taking effect as early as July 31, 2026. As yet another example, the Budget Control Act, as amended, resulted in the imposition of reductions in Medicare (but not Medicaid) payments to providers in 2013 that remain in effect through 2032 unless additional Congressional action is taken. Any significant spending reductions affecting Medicare, Medicaid or other publicly funded or subsidized health programs that may be implemented and/or any significant taxes or fees that may be imposed on us could have an adverse impact on our results of operations.

Individual states in the United States have also increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access, marketing cost disclosure, drug price reporting and other transparency measures. Some states have enacted legislation creating so-called prescription drug affordability boards with the goal of imposing price limits on certain drugs in these states, and at least one state board is imposing an upper payment limit. States are also seeking to implement general, across the board price caps for pharmaceuticals, or are seeking to regulate drug distribution. Some measures are designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. These types of initiatives may result in additional reductions in healthcare funding, and may otherwise affect the prices we may obtain for our product candidates, if approved. Legally mandated price controls on payment amounts by third-party payors or other restrictions could harm our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects. In addition, hospitals and health systems are increasingly using bidding procedures to determine what pharmaceutical products and which suppliers will be included in their prescription drug and other healthcare programs. This could reduce the ultimate demand for our products, if approved, or put pressure on our product pricing, which could negatively affect our business, results of operations, financial condition, and prospects.

Health care reform initiatives at the federal or state level could affect demand for, or pricing of, our current or other product candidates if approved for sale. Healthcare reform efforts have been and may continue to be subject to scrutiny, legal challenge and subsequent amendment, creating further uncertainty. We cannot, however, predict the ultimate content, timing or effect of any federal and state reform efforts. There is no assurance that federal or state health care reform will not adversely affect our future business and financial results.

If we fail to comply with healthcare and other regulations, we could face substantial penalties and our business, operations and financial condition could be adversely affected.

Our business operations, including our interactions with healthcare professionals and other healthcare providers, third-party payors, patients and other third-parties in the healthcare industry are or may in the future be subject to a wide range of federal and state healthcare laws and regulations that may constrain our business and/or financial arrangements, including how we research, market, sell and distribute our product candidates, if approved. Restrictions under applicable federal and state healthcare laws and regulations, some of which will apply only if and when we receive regulatory approval for a product candidate, include the following:

Efforts to ensure that our business arrangements with third-parties comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations will involve substantial costs. Given the breadth of the laws and regulations, limited guidance for certain laws and regulations and evolving government interpretations of the laws and regulations, governmental authorities may possibly conclude that our business practices may not comply with healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of the laws described above or any other government regulations that apply to us, we may be subject to penalties, including significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, disgorgement, exclusion from participation in government healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, imprisonment, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations, any of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects. Further, defending against any such actions can be costly, time consuming, and may require significant personnel resources. Therefore, even if we are successful in defending against any such actions that may be brought against us, our business may be impaired.

The U.S. Supreme Court’s June 2024 decision in Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo overturned the longstanding Chevron doctrine, under which courts were required to give deference to regulatory agencies’ reasonable interpretations of ambiguous federal statutes. The Loper decision could result in additional legal challenges to regulations and guidance issued by federal agencies, including FDA and the Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services, on which we rely. Any such legal challenges, if successful, could have a material impact on our business. Additionally, the Loper decision may result in increased regulatory uncertainty, inconsistent judicial interpretations, and other impacts to the agency rulemaking process, any of which could adversely impact our business and operations. We cannot predict the likelihood, nature or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative action or as a result of legal challenges, either in the United States or abroad. If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, our business could be materially harmed.

We are and in the future may be subject to stringent and evolving U.S. and foreign laws, regulations, rules, contractual obligations, and policies related to data privacy and security. Our actual or perceived failure to comply with such obligations could lead to regulatory investigations or actions; litigation; fines and penalties; disruptions of our business operations; reputational harm; loss of revenue or profits; loss of customers or sales; and other adverse business consequences.

In the ordinary course of business, we collect, receive, store, process, generate, use, transfer, disclose, make accessible, protect, secure, dispose of, transmit, and share (collectively, process or processing) personal data and other sensitive information, including proprietary and confidential business data, trade secrets, employee data, intellectual property, data we collect about trial participants in connection with clinical trials, and other sensitive third-party data (collectively, sensitive data). We also depend on a number of third-party vendors in relation to the operation of our business, including our CROs, CDMOs and other service providers, a number of which process sensitive data on our behalf.

The global data protection landscape is rapidly evolving, and we are or may become subject to numerous state, federal and foreign laws, requirements, regulations, industry standards, privacy policies, contractual requirements, and other obligations governing the collection, use, disclosure, retention, and security of sensitive data, such as information that we may collect in connection with clinical trials. Implementation standards and enforcement practices are likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future, and we cannot yet determine the impact future laws, regulations, standards, or perception of their requirements may have on our business.

For example, HIPAA, as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act imposes specific requirements relating to the privacy, security, and transmission of individually identifiable health information. We may obtain health information from third parties, such as research institutions with which we collaborate, that are subject to privacy and security requirements under HIPAA. Although we do not believe that we are directly subject to HIPAA, other than potentially with respect to providing certain employee benefits, we could be subject to criminal penalties if we knowingly obtain or disclose individually identifiable health information maintained by a HIPAA covered entity in a manner that is not authorized or permitted by HIPAA. Additionally, the California Consumer Privacy Act (“CCPA”) applies to personal information of California consumers, business representatives, and employees, and among other things requires businesses to provide specific disclosures in privacy notices and honor requests of California residents to exercise certain privacy rights, including the right to opt out of certain disclosures of their information. At least 19 other states have also passed comprehensive privacy laws, and similar laws are being considered in several other states, as well as at the federal and local levels. While these state privacy laws, like the CCPA, also exempt some data processed in the context of clinical trials, these developments further complicate compliance efforts, and increase legal risk and compliance costs for us and the third parties upon whom we rely. In addition to government activity, privacy advocacy groups and technology and other industries are considering various new, additional or different self- regulatory standards that may place additional burdens on us.

In addition, the U.S. Department of Justice “Data Security Program” regulations issued pursuant to Executive Order 14117, “Preventing Access to Americans’ Bulk Sensitive Personal Data and United States Government-Related Data by Countries of Concern,” restrict, and in some cases prohibit, data transfers involving countries of concern or covered persons, including the People’s Republic of China (including Hong Kong and Macau), Russia, Iran, North Korea, Cuba and Venezuela that involve certain U.S. government-related data and bulk human’omic, geolocation, biometric, health, financial, and other sensitive personal data. The Data Security Program applies even to data that has been de-identified, anonymized or encrypted. Entities organized under the laws of the United States as well as U.S. persons are restricted in their ability to provide access to such data to such countries as well as “covered persons” that have certain nexuses to such countries, and they are also required to prohibit foreign parties from making an “onward transfer” of such data to countries of concern and covered persons. These restrictions may inhibit or preclude our ability to fully realize the value of such data, to use such data effectively or efficiently, or to engage in some data transactions that would otherwise be available to entities not subject to the Data Security Program. Compliance with the Data Security Program may require us to invest heavily in data security and compliance measures, such as implementing and complying with the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency’s guidelines and other burdensome recordkeeping, reporting, and auditing requirements. It may also require us to implement new processes, stop or restrict certain data transfers, alter the geographic scope of our operations, cease doing business with certain third parties or using certain tools or vendors, or change how data flows throughout our business, any of which could materially impact our business operations or hinder our ability to grow our business. Non-compliance with the Data Security Program could result in significant civil or criminal penalties, which could materially adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

There are also various laws and regulations in other jurisdictions outside the United States relating to data privacy and security, with which we may need to comply. For example, the EU GDPR and the UK’s equivalent (“UK GDPR” and collectively, “GDPR”), impose strict requirements for processing personal data. Notably, the EU GDPR and UK GDPR impose large penalties for noncompliance, including the potential for fines of up to €20 million under the EU GDPR / £17.5 million under the UK GDPR, or 4% of the annual global revenue of the noncompliant entity, whichever is greater. The EU GDPR and UK GDPR also provide for private litigation related to processing of personal data brought by classes of data subjects or consumer protection organizations authorized at law to represent their interests. Additionally, EU member states and other jurisdictions may introduce further conditions, including limitations, and make their own laws and regulations further limiting the processing of special categories of personal data, including personal data related to health, biometric data used for unique

identification purposes and genetic information, which could limit our ability to collect, use and share data from the EU and other jurisdictions, and could cause our compliance costs to increase, ultimately adversely affecting our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

In addition, we may be unable to transfer personal data from Europe and other jurisdictions to the United States or other countries due to data localization requirements or limitations on cross-border data flows. Europe and other jurisdictions have enacted laws requiring data to be localized or limiting the transfer of personal data to other countries. In particular, the European Economic Area (“EEA”) and the UK have significantly restricted the transfer of personal data to countries whose privacy laws it believes are inadequate. Case law from the Court of Justice of the European Union (“CJEU”), however, states that reliance on the standard contractual clauses-a standard form of contract approved by the European Commission as an adequate personal information transfer mechanism-alone may not necessarily be sufficient in all circumstances and that transfers must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. In October 2022, President Biden signed an Executive Order that introduced new mechanisms and safeguards to address the concerns raised by the CJEU in relation to data transfers from the EEA to the United States and which formed the basis of the new EU-US Data Privacy Framework (and corresponding UK data protection framework, collectively the “DPF”), as released on December 13, 2022. The European Commission adoption of its Adequacy Decision means the DPF is effective as an EU GDPR transfer mechanism to U.S. entities self-certified under the DPF. While we have certified as a participant in the DPF, we cannot guarantee that the validity of the DPF will not undergo further legal challenge as occurred with previous transfer mechanisms like the EU/US Privacy Shield.

Other jurisdictions may adopt similarly stringent interpretations of their data localization and cross-border data transfer laws. Although there are currently various mechanisms that may be used to transfer personal data from the EEA and UK to the United States in compliance with law, such as the EEA and UK’s standard contractual clauses and the recently approved DPF, these mechanisms are subject to legal challenges, and there is no assurance that we can satisfy or rely on these measures to lawfully transfer personal data to the United States. If there is no lawful manner for us to transfer personal data from the EEA, the UK or other jurisdictions to the United States, or if the requirements for a legally-compliant transfer are too onerous, we could face significant adverse consequences, including the interruption or degradation of our operations, the need to relocate part of or all of our business or data processing activities to other jurisdictions at significant expense, increased exposure to regulatory actions, substantial fines and penalties, the inability to transfer data and work with partners, vendors and other third parties, and injunctions against our processing or transferring of personal data necessary to operate our business. Additionally, companies that transfer personal data out of the EEA and UK to other jurisdictions, particularly to the United States, are subject to increased scrutiny from regulators, individual litigants, and activist groups. Some European regulators have ordered certain companies to suspend or permanently cease certain transfers out of Europe for allegedly violating the EU GDPR’s cross-border data transfer limitations.

In addition to data privacy and security laws, we are also bound by other contractual obligations related to data privacy and security, and our efforts to comply with such obligations may not be successful.

Each of these laws, rules, regulations and contractual obligations relating to data privacy and security, and any other such changes or new laws, rules, regulations or contractual obligations could impose significant limitations, require changes to our business, or restrict our collection, use, storage or processing of sensitive data, which may increase our compliance expenses and make our business more costly or less efficient to conduct. In addition, any such changes could compromise our ability to develop an adequate marketing strategy and pursue our growth strategy effectively or even prevent us from providing certain products in jurisdictions in which we currently operate and in which we may operate in the future or incur potential liability in an effort to comply with such legislation, which, in turn, could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. Complying with these numerous, complex and often changing regulations is expensive and difficult, and failure to comply with any data privacy or security laws, whether by us, one of our CROs or CDMOs, or another third party, could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, including but not limited to: investigation costs; material fines and penalties; compensatory, special, punitive and statutory damages; litigation; consent orders regarding our privacy and security practices; requirements that we provide notices, credit monitoring services and/or credit restoration services or other relevant services to impacted individuals; adverse actions against our licenses to do business; reputational damage; and injunctive relief. The implementation of the CCPA, GDPR and other similar laws have increased our responsibility and liability in relation to sensitive data that we process and we may in the future be required to put in place additional mechanisms to ensure compliance with these and other applicable laws and regulations, which could divert management’s attention and increase our cost of doing business. In addition, new regulation or legislative actions regarding data privacy and security (together with applicable industry standards) may increase our costs of doing business. In this regard, we expect that there will continue to be new proposed laws, regulations and industry standards relating to privacy and data protection in the United States and other jurisdictions, and we cannot determine the impact such future laws, regulations and standards may have on our business.

Any actual or perceived failure by us or our third-party service providers to comply with any federal, state or foreign laws, rules, regulations, regulatory guidance, orders to which we may be subject or other legal obligations relating to privacy, data protection, data security could adversely affect our reputation, brand and business. We may also be contractually required to indemnify and hold harmless third parties from the costs or consequences of non-compliance with any laws, rules and regulations or other legal obligations relating to privacy or any inadvertent or unauthorized use or disclosure of sensitive data that we store or handle as part of operating our business. Any of these events could adversely affect our reputation, business, or financial condition, including but not limited to: loss of customers; interruptions or stoppages in our business operations (including clinical trials); inability to process sensitive data or to operate in certain jurisdictions; limited ability to develop or commercialize our products; expenditure of time and resources to defend any claim or inquiry; adverse publicity; or substantial changes to our business model or operations.

Our CROs, CDMOs or other third-party service providers with access to our or our suppliers’, manufacturers’, trial participants’ and employees’ sensitive data for which we are responsible may breach contractual obligations imposed by us, or they may experience data security incidents, which could have a corresponding effect on our business, including putting us in breach of our obligations under privacy laws and regulations and/or which could in turn adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. Our contractual measures and our own privacy and security-related safeguards may not protect us from the risks associated with the third-party processing of such information. Any of the foregoing could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

We also publicly post our privacy policies and practices concerning our collection, use, disclosure and other processing of the personal information provided to us by our website visitors and by our customers. Although we endeavor to comply with our public statements and documentation, we may at times fail to do so or be perceived to have failed to do so. Our publication of our privacy policies and other statements we publish that provide promises and assurances about privacy and security can subject us to potential state and federal action if they are found to be deceptive, unfair or misrepresentative of our actual practices. Any actual or perceived failure by us to comply with federal, state or foreign laws, rules or regulations, industry standards, contractual or other legal obligations, or any actual, perceived or suspected cybersecurity incident, whether or not resulting in unauthorized access to, or acquisition, release or transfer of personal information or other data, may result in enforcement actions and prosecutions, private litigation, significant fines, penalties and censure, claims for damages by customers and other affected individuals, regulatory inquiries and investigations or adverse publicity and could cause our customers to lose trust in us, any of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Our contracts may not contain limitations of liability, and even where they do, the limitations of liability in our contracts may not be sufficient to protect us from liabilities, damages, or claims related to our data privacy and security obligations. Further, the successful assertion of one or more large claims against us that exceeds our available insurance coverage, or results in changes to our insurance policies (including premium increases or the imposition of large deductible or co-insurance requirements), could have an adverse effect on our business. In addition, we cannot be sure that our existing insurance coverage will continue to be available on acceptable terms or that our insurers will not deny coverage as to any future claim.

We are subject to U.S. and certain foreign export and import controls, sanctions, embargoes, anti-corruption laws, and anti-money laundering laws and regulations. Compliance with these legal standards could impair our ability to compete in domestic and international markets. We can face criminal liability and other serious consequences for violations, which can harm our business.

We are subject to export control and import laws and regulations, including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, U.S. Customs regulations, various economic and trade sanctions regulations administered by the U.S. Treasury Department’s Office of Foreign Assets Controls, the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, as amended, the U.S. domestic bribery statute contained in 18 U.S.C. § 201, the U.S. Travel Act, the USA PATRIOT Act, and other state and national anti-bribery and anti-money laundering laws in the countries in which we conduct activities. Anti-corruption laws are interpreted broadly and prohibit companies and their employees, agents, contractors, and other collaborators from authorizing, promising, offering, or providing, directly or indirectly, improper payments or anything else of value to recipients in the public or private sector. We may engage third parties to sell our products outside the United States, to conduct clinical trials, and/or to obtain necessary permits, licenses, patent registrations, and other regulatory approvals. We have direct or indirect interactions with officials and employees of government agencies or government-affiliated hospitals, universities, and other organizations. We can be held liable for the corrupt or other illegal activities of our employees, agents, contractors, and other collaborators, even if we do not explicitly authorize or have actual knowledge of such activities. Any violations of the laws and regulations described above may result in substantial civil and criminal fines and penalties, imprisonment, the loss of export or import privileges, debarment, tax reassessments, breach of contract and fraud litigation, reputational harm, and other consequences.

International trade policies, including tariffs, sanctions and trade barriers may adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

We operate in a global economy, which includes utilizing third-party suppliers in several countries outside the United States. There is inherent risk, based on the complex relationships among the U.S. and the countries in which we conduct our business, that political, diplomatic and national security factors can lead to global trade restrictions and changes in trade policies and export regulations that may adversely affect our business and operations. The current international trade and regulatory environment is subject to significant ongoing uncertainty. The U.S. government has recently announced substantial new tariffs affecting a wide range of products and jurisdictions and has indicated an intention to continue developing new trade policies, including with respect to the pharmaceutical industry. In response, certain foreign governments have announced or implemented retaliatory tariffs and other protectionist measures. These developments have created a dynamic and unpredictable trade landscape, which may adversely impact our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

We do not own or operate and currently have no plans to establish any manufacturing facilities. We currently rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties for the manufacture of our product candidates for clinical testing, as well as for manufacture of any products that we may commercialize, if approved. Currently, several of our suppliers are located outside of the United States. We also rely on specialized laboratory equipment, supplies and materials, all or part of which we believe may be ultimately sourced from multiple countries outside the United States, to advance our research and development efforts.

Current or future tariffs could result in increased research and development expenses, including with respect to increased costs associated with active pharmaceutical ingredients, raw materials, laboratory equipment and research materials and components. In addition, such tariffs could increase our supply chain complexity and could also potentially disrupt our existing supply chain. Trade restrictions affecting the import of materials necessary for clinical trials could result in delays to our development timelines. Increased development costs and extended development timelines could place us at a competitive disadvantage compared to companies operating entirely domestically or in regions with more favorable trade relationships and could reduce investor confidence, negatively impacting our ability to secure additional financing on favorable terms or at all. In addition, as we advance toward commercialization in the future, tariffs and trade restrictions could hinder our ability to establish cost-effective production capabilities, negatively impacting our growth prospects.

The complexity of announced or future tariffs may also increase the risk that we or our customers or suppliers may be subject to civil or criminal enforcement actions in the United States or foreign jurisdictions related to compliance with trade regulations. Foreign governments may also adopt non-tariff measures, such as procurement preferences or informal disincentives to engage with, purchase from or invest in U.S. entities, which may limit our ability to compete internationally and attract non-U.S. investment, employees, customers and suppliers. Foreign governments may also take other retaliatory actions against U.S. entities, such as decreased intellectual property protection, increased enforcement actions or delays in regulatory approvals, which may result in heightened international legal and operational risks. In addition, the United States and other governments have imposed and may continue to impose additional sanctions, such as trade restrictions or trade barriers, which could restrict us from doing business directly or indirectly in or with certain countries or parties and may impose additional costs and complexity to our business.

Trade disputes, tariffs, restrictions and other political tensions between the United States and other countries may also exacerbate unfavorable macroeconomic conditions including inflationary pressures, foreign exchange volatility, financial market instability and economic recessions or downturns. The ultimate impact of current or future tariffs and trade restrictions remains uncertain and could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. While we actively monitor these risks, any prolonged economic downturn, escalation in trade tensions or deterioration in international perception of U.S.-based companies could materially and adversely affect our business, ability to access the capital markets or other financing sources, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. In addition, tariffs and other trade developments have and may continue to heighten the risks related to the other risk factors described elsewhere in this prospectus.

If our third-party manufacturers use hazardous and biological materials in a manner that causes injury or violates applicable law, we may be liable for damages.

Our research and development activities involve the controlled use of potentially hazardous substances, including chemical materials, by our third-party manufacturers. Our manufacturers are subject to federal, state and local laws and regulations in the U.S. governing the use, manufacture, storage, handling and disposal of medical and hazardous materials. Although we believe that our manufacturers’ procedures for using, handling, storing and disposing of these materials comply with legally prescribed standards, we cannot completely eliminate the risk of contamination or injury resulting from medical or hazardous materials. As a result of any such contamination or injury, we may incur liability or local, city, state or federal authorities may curtail the use of these materials and interrupt our business operations. In the event of an accident, we could be held liable for damages or penalized with fines, and the liability could exceed our resources. We do not have any insurance for liabilities arising from medical or hazardous materials. Compliance with applicable environmental laws and regulations is expensive, and current or future environmental regulations may impair our research, development and production efforts, which could harm our business, prospects, financial condition or results of operations.

Risks Related to Our Reliance on Third Parties

We rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties, including independent clinical investigators, contracted laboratories and CROs, to conduct our preclinical studies and clinical trials. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or meet expected deadlines, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for or commercialize our product candidates and our business could be substantially harmed.

We rely and intend to continue to rely on third-party clinical investigators, CROs and clinical data management organizations to conduct, supervise and monitor preclinical studies and clinical trials of our current and other product candidates. Because of this reliance, we have less control over the timing, quality and other aspects of preclinical studies and clinical trials than if we conduct them ourselves. Third parties are not our employees and we have limited control over the amount of time and resources that they dedicate to our programs. Additionally, such parties have contractual relationships with other entities, some of which may be our competitors, which may divert time and resources from our programs.

Our reliance on third parties reduces our control over our development activities. Nevertheless, we are responsible for ensuring that each of our clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable trial protocol and legal, regulatory and scientific standards. For example, we remain responsible for ensuring that certain of our preclinical studies are conducted in accordance with GLPs, and clinical trials are conducted in accordance with GCPs. Moreover, the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities require us to comply with GCP for conducting, recording and reporting the results of clinical trials to assure that data and reported results are credible and accurate and that the rights, integrity and confidentiality of trial participants are protected. Regulatory authorities enforce these requirements through periodic inspections (including pre-approval inspections once a BLA is submitted to the FDA) of trial sponsors, clinical investigators, trial sites and certain third parties including CROs. If we, our CROs, clinical trial sites or other third parties fail to comply with applicable GCP or other regulatory requirements, we or they may be subject to enforcement or other legal actions, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require us to perform additional clinical trials. Moreover, our business may be significantly impacted if our CROs, clinical investigators or other third parties violate federal or state healthcare fraud and abuse or false claims laws and regulations or healthcare privacy and security laws.

There is no guarantee that any of our CROs, investigators or other third parties will devote adequate time and resources to such trials or studies or perform as contractually required. If our third party contractors do not successfully carry out their contractual duties, meet deadlines or conduct our clinical trials in accordance with regulatory requirements or our stated protocols, our clinical trials may need to be repeated, extended, delayed or terminated, we may not be able to obtain, or may be delayed in obtaining, regulatory approvals for our product candidates, we will not be able to, or may be delayed in our efforts to, successfully commercialize our product candidates or we or they may be subject to regulatory enforcement actions. As a result, our results of operations and the commercial prospects for our product candidates would be harmed, our costs could increase and our ability to generate revenue could be delayed.

If any of our relationships with these third parties terminate, we may not be able to enter into alternative arrangements or do so on commercially reasonable terms. Switching or adding contractors involves cost, takes time and diverts management’s attention. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new third party commences work. Delays could compromise our ability to meet our desired development timelines. In addition, if an agreement with any of our collaborators terminates, our access to technology and intellectual property licensed to us by that collaborator may be restricted or terminate entirely, which may delay our continued development of our product candidates utilizing the collaborator’s technology or intellectual property or require us to stop development of those product candidates completely.

In addition, principal investigators for our clinical trials may serve as scientific advisors or consultants to us from time to time and receive compensation in connection with such services. We may be required to report some of these relationships to the FDA, and the FDA may conclude that a financial relationship between us and/or a principal investigator has created a conflict of interest or otherwise affects interpretation of the study. The FDA may therefore question the integrity of the data generated at the applicable clinical trial site and the utility of the clinical trial itself may be jeopardized. This could result in a delay in approval, or rejection, of our marketing applications by the FDA and may ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of one or more of our product candidates.

We currently rely and expect to rely in the future on third parties to manufacture our product candidates, and we may rely on third parties to produce and process our products, if approved. Our business could be adversely affected if the third-party manufacturers encounter difficulties in production.

We do not own or operate facilities for drug manufacturing, storage, distribution or quality testing and must currently rely on CMOs to manufacture our product candidates. We have not yet caused our product candidates to be manufactured on a commercial scale and may not be able to do so for any of our product candidates, if approved. We currently have sole source relationships for our supply of TRB-061 and TRB-071. If there should be any disruption in such supply arrangement, including any adverse events affecting our sole suppliers, it could have a negative effect on the clinical development of our product candidates and other operations while we work to qualify an alternate supply source. We may not control the manufacturing process of, and may be completely dependent on, our contract manufacturing partners for compliance with cGMP requirements and any other regulatory requirements of the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities for the manufacture of our product candidates. Beyond periodic audits, we have no control over the ability of our CMOs to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance and qualified personnel. If the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority does not approve these facilities for the manufacture of our product candidates or if it withdraws any such approval in the future, we may need to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which would require the incurrence of significant additional costs and materially adversely affect our ability to develop, obtain regulatory approval for or market our programs, if approved. Similarly, our failure, or the failure of our CMOs, to comply with applicable regulations could result in sanctions being imposed on us, including fines, injunctions, civil penalties, delays, suspension or withdrawal of approvals, license revocation, seizures or recalls of programs or drugs, operating restrictions and criminal prosecutions, any of which could significantly and adversely affect supplies of our programs or drugs and harm our business and results of operations.

Moreover, our CMOs may experience manufacturing difficulties due to resource constraints, supply chain issues, or as a result of labor disputes or unstable political environments. If any CMOs on which we will rely fail to manufacture quantities of our programs at quality levels necessary to meet regulatory requirements and at a scale sufficient to meet anticipated demand at a cost that allows us to achieve profitability, our business, financial condition and prospects could be materially and adversely affected. In addition, our CMOs are responsible for transporting temperature controlled materials that can be inadvertently degraded during transport due to several factors, rendering certain batches unsuitable for trial use for failure to meet, among others, our integrity and purity specifications. We and any of our CMOs may also face product seizure or detention or refusal to permit the import or export of products. Our business could be materially adversely affected by business disruptions to our third-party providers that could materially adversely affect our anticipated timelines, potential future revenue and financial condition and increase our costs and expenses. Each of these risks could delay or prevent the completion of our preclinical studies and clinical trials or the approval of any of our programs by the FDA, result in higher costs or adversely impact commercialization of our product candidates.

We may have conflicts with our current or future licensors or collaborators that could delay or prevent the development or commercialization of our product candidates.

We are currently party to license and collaboration agreements, and we expect to enter into similar strategic transactions in the future. Our current or any future collaborators may act in a manner that is adverse to our best interests and our interests may conflict with theirs, including concerning the interpretation of preclinical or clinical data, the achievement of milestones, the interpretation of contractual obligations, payments for services, development obligations or the ownership of intellectual property developed during our collaboration. Any disagreement could result in one or more of the following, each of which could delay or prevent the development or commercialization of our product candidates, and in turn prevent us from generating revenue: disputes regarding milestone payments or royalties; uncertainty regarding ownership of intellectual property rights arising from our collaborative activities, which could prevent us from entering into additional collaborations; unwillingness by the collaborator to cooperate in the development or manufacture of a product candidate, including providing us with data or materials; unwillingness on the part of a collaborator to keep us informed regarding the progress of its development and commercialization activities or to permit public disclosure of the results of those activities; initiating of litigation or alternative dispute resolution options by either party to resolve the dispute; or attempts by either party to terminate the agreement.

If we fail to comply with our obligations in the agreements under which we in-license or acquire development or commercialization rights related to our product candidates, or data from third parties, we could lose such rights that are important to our business.

Our licensors may have relied upon, and any future licensors may rely upon, third-party companies, consultants or collaborators, or on funds from third parties such that our licensors are not the sole and exclusive owners of the patents we in-license. If our licensors fail to prosecute, maintain, enforce, and defend such patents, or lose rights to those patents, the rights we have licensed may be reduced or eliminated, and our right to develop and commercialize our current or other product candidates that are or may be the subject of such licensed rights could be adversely affected. Further development and commercialization of our product candidates and development of any other product candidates may require us to enter into

additional license or collaboration agreements. Our future licenses may not provide us with exclusive rights to use the licensed patent rights and other intellectual property licensed thereunder or may not provide us with exclusive rights to use such patent rights and intellectual property in all relevant fields of use and in all territories in which we wish to develop or commercialize our current or other product candidates.

In spite of our efforts, our licensors or any future licensors might conclude that we are in material breach of obligations under our license agreements and may therefore have the right to terminate the license agreements, thereby removing our ability to develop and commercialize product candidates and technology covered by such license agreements. If such in-licenses are terminated, or if the underlying patents fail to provide the intended exclusivity, our competitors would have the freedom to seek regulatory approval of, and to market, products identical to our product candidates and the licensors to such in-licenses could prevent us from developing or commercializing product candidates that rely upon the patents or other intellectual property rights which were the subject matter of such terminated agreements. In addition, we may seek to obtain additional licenses from our licensors and, in connection with obtaining such licenses, we may agree to amend our existing licenses in a manner that may be more favorable to the licensors, including by agreeing to terms that could enable third parties (potentially including our competitors) to receive licenses to a portion of the intellectual property that is subject to our existing licenses and compete with our existing product candidates. Any of these events could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Disputes may arise regarding intellectual property subject to a licensing agreement, including:

In addition, our license agreements are, and future license agreements are likely to be, complex, and certain provisions in such agreements may be susceptible to multiple interpretations. The resolution of any contract interpretation disagreement that may arise could narrow what we believe to be the scope of our rights to the relevant intellectual property or increase what we believe to be our financial or other obligations under the relevant agreement, either of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects. Moreover, if disputes over intellectual property that we have licensed prevent or impair our ability to maintain our current licensing arrangements on commercially acceptable terms, we may be unable to successfully develop and commercialize the affected product candidates, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

The operations of our suppliers, some of which are located outside of the United States, are subject to additional risks that are beyond our control and that could harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Currently, certain of our suppliers primarily operate outside of the United States. As a result, we are subject to risks associated with doing business abroad, including:

These and other factors beyond our control could interrupt our suppliers’ production, influence the ability of our suppliers to export our clinical supplies cost-effectively or at all and inhibit our suppliers’ ability to procure certain materials, any of which could delay our clinical trials or otherwise harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

If we are unable to obtain and maintain sufficient intellectual property protection for our product candidates or any other product candidates we may develop, or if the scope of the intellectual property protection obtained is not sufficiently broad, our competitors or other third parties could develop and commercialize products similar or identical to ours, and our ability to successfully develop and commercialize our product candidates may be adversely impacted.

We rely upon a combination of patents, know-how and confidentiality agreements to protect the intellectual property related to our product candidates and to prevent third parties from copying and surpassing our achievements, thus eroding our competitive position in our market.

Our success depends in large part on our ability to obtain and maintain patent protection in the United States and other countries for our product candidates and their uses, as well as our ability to operate without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating the proprietary rights of others. We seek to protect our proprietary position by filing and licensing patent applications in the United States and abroad related to our novel discoveries and technologies that are important to our business. Our pending and future patent applications may not result in patents being issued. Issued patents may not afford sufficient protection of our product candidates or their intended uses against competitors, and the patents issued may be infringed, designed around, invalidated by third parties, or may not effectively prevent others from commercializing competitive technologies, products or product candidates.

Obtaining and enforcing patents is expensive and time-consuming, and we may not be able to file, prosecute, maintain, enforce or license all necessary or desirable patent applications or maintain and/or enforce patents that may issue based on our patent applications, at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. We may not be able to obtain or maintain patent applications and patents due to the subject matter claimed in such patent applications and patents being in disclosures in the public domain. It is also possible that we will fail to identify patentable aspects of our research and development results before it is too late to obtain patent protection. Although we enter into non-disclosure and confidentiality agreements with parties who have access to confidential or patentable aspects of our research and development output, such as our employees, corporate collaborators, outside scientific collaborators, CROs, CMOs, consultants, advisors and other third parties, any of these parties may breach these agreements and disclose such results before a patent application is filed, thereby jeopardizing our ability to seek patent protection.

The patent position of biopharmaceutical companies generally is highly uncertain, involves complex legal and factual questions and has in recent years been the subject of much litigation, resulting in court decisions, including Supreme Court decisions, which have increased uncertainties as to the ability to obtain patents and to enforce patent rights in the future. As a result, the issuance, scope, validity, enforceability and commercial value of any patent rights are highly uncertain. Our pending and future owned and in-licensed patent applications may not result in patents being issued which protect our product candidates, effectively prevent others from commercializing our product candidates or otherwise provide any competitive advantage. In fact, patent applications may not issue as patents at all. The coverage claimed in a patent application can also be significantly reduced before the patent is issued, and its scope can be reinterpreted after issuance. In addition, the laws of foreign countries may not protect our rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States, or vice versa.

The patent application process is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, and we may not be successful in protecting our product candidates by obtaining and defending patents. For example, we may not be aware of all third-party intellectual property rights potentially relating to our product candidates or their intended uses, and as a result the impact of such third-party intellectual property rights upon the patentability of our own or our licensors’ patents and patent applications, as well as the impact of such third-party intellectual property upon our freedom to operate, is highly uncertain. Publications of discoveries in the scientific literature often lag behind the actual discoveries, and patent applications in the United States and other jurisdictions are typically not published until 18 months after filing or, in some cases, not at all. Therefore, we cannot know with certainty whether we were the first to make the inventions claimed in our patents or pending patent applications, or that we were the first to file for patent protection of such inventions. If a third party can establish that we or our licensors were not the first to make or the first to file for patent protection of such inventions, our owned or licensed patent applications may not

issue as patents and even if issued, may be challenged and invalidated or rendered unenforceable. As a result, the issuance, inventorship, scope, validity, enforceability and commercial value of our or our licensors’ patent rights are highly uncertain.

The issuance of a patent is not conclusive as to its inventorship, scope, validity or enforceability and our or our licensors’ pending patent applications may be challenged in patent offices in the United States and abroad. Even issued patents may later be found invalid or unenforceable or may be modified or revoked in proceedings instituted by third parties before various patent offices or in courts. For example, our or our licensors’ pending patent applications may be subject to third-party pre-issuance submissions of prior art to the USPTO or our issued patents may be subject to post-grant review proceedings, oppositions, derivations, reexaminations, interferences, inter partes review proceedings or other similar proceedings, in the United States or elsewhere, challenging our or our licensors’ patent rights or the patent rights of others. In some cases, such submissions may also be made prior to a patent’s issuance, precluding the granting of a patent based on one or more of our owned or licensed pending patent applications. An adverse determination in any such challenges may result in loss of exclusivity or in patent claims being narrowed, invalidated, or held unenforceable, in whole or in part, which could limit our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar or identical technology and product candidates, or limit the duration of the patent protection of our technology and product candidates. Such challenges also may result in substantial cost and require significant time from our scientists and management, even if the eventual outcome is favorable to us. Any of the foregoing could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

A third party may also claim that our owned or licensed patent rights are invalid or unenforceable in a litigation. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable. An adverse result in any legal proceeding could put one or more of our owned or in-licensed patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and could allow third parties to commercialize our products and compete directly with us, without payment to us, or result in our inability to manufacture or commercialize our technology, products or product candidates without infringing third-party patent rights.

In addition, given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized. The degree of future protection for our proprietary rights is uncertain. Only limited protection may be available and may not adequately protect our rights or permit us to gain or keep any competitive advantage. Any failure to obtain or maintain patent protection with respect to our product candidates or their uses could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

We may not obtain or maintain necessary rights to our product candidates through acquisitions and in-licenses.

The growth of our business depends in part on our ability to acquire, in-license, or use third-party proprietary rights, and we may not be able to do so on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Licenses may be on nonexclusive terms, thereby giving our competitors and other third parties access to the same intellectual property licensed to us, or could require us to make substantial licensing and royalty payments. The licensing and acquisition of third-party intellectual property rights is a competitive area, and a number of more established companies may pursue strategies to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights that we may consider attractive or necessary. These established companies may have a competitive advantage over us due to their size, capital resources or greater clinical development and commercialization capabilities. In addition, companies that perceive us to be a competitor may be unwilling to assign or license rights to us. We also may be unable to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights on terms that would allow us to make an appropriate return on our investment or at all. If we are unable to successfully obtain rights to required third-party intellectual property rights or maintain the existing intellectual property rights we have obtained, we may have to abandon development of the relevant program or product candidate, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

While we normally seek to obtain the right to control prosecution, maintenance and enforcement of the patents relating to our product candidates, there may be times when the filing and prosecution activities for patents and patent applications relating to our product candidates are controlled by our licensors or collaboration partners. If any of our current or future licensors or collaboration partners fails to prosecute, maintain and enforce such patents and patent applications in a manner consistent with the best interests of our business, including by payment of all applicable fees for patents covering our product candidates, we could lose our rights to the intellectual property or our exclusivity with respect to those rights, our ability to develop and commercialize those product candidates may be adversely affected and we may not be able to prevent competitors from making, using and selling competing products. In addition, even where we have the right to control patent prosecution of patents and patent applications we have licensed to and from third parties, we may still be adversely affected or prejudiced by actions or inactions of our licensees, our future licensors and their counsel that took place prior to the date upon which we assumed control over patent prosecution.

Patent rights relating to inventions described and claimed in our or our licensors’ pending patent applications may not issue and patents based on our or our licensors’ patent applications could be challenged and rendered invalid and/or unenforceable.

The patent application process is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, and we, our licensors, or any of our potential future collaborators may not be successful in protecting our product candidates by obtaining and defending patents. We and our licensors have several pending U.S. and foreign patent applications in our portfolio. We cannot predict:

The claims in our or our licensors’ pending patent applications directed to our product candidates may not be considered patentable by the USPTO or by patent offices in foreign countries, and any such patent applications may not issue as granted patents. One aspect of the determination of patentability of our and our licensors’ inventions depends on the scope and content of the “prior art,” information that was or is deemed available to a person of skill in the relevant art prior to the priority date of the claimed invention. There may be prior art of which we are not aware that may affect the patentability of our or our licensors’ patent claims or, if issued, affect the validity or enforceability of a patent claim. Even if the patents do issue based on our or our licensors’ patent applications, third parties may challenge the validity, enforceability or scope thereof, which may result in such patents being narrowed, invalidated or held unenforceable. For example, there may be prior art not considered by the patent office that is raised by a third party to challenge the validity of any patents that issue from our or our licensors’ patent applications. Furthermore, even if they are unchallenged, patents in our and our licensors’ portfolio may not adequately exclude third parties from practicing relevant technology or prevent others from designing around our claims. If the breadth or strength of our intellectual property position with respect to our product candidates is threatened, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to develop and threaten our ability to commercialize our product candidates. In the event of litigation or administrative proceedings, we cannot be certain that the claims in any of our issued patents will be considered valid by courts in the United States or foreign countries.

We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

Patents are of national or regional effect. Filing, prosecuting and defending patents on all of our research programs and product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and our and our licensors’ intellectual property rights in some countries outside the United States can be less extensive than those in the United States. In addition, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as federal and state laws in the United States, even in jurisdictions where we do pursue patent protection. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our or our licensors’ inventions in all countries outside the United States, even in jurisdictions where we or our licensors do pursue patent protection, or from selling or importing products made using our or our licensors’ inventions in and into the United States or other jurisdictions. Competitors may use our or our licensors’ technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and, further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we and our licensors have patent protection, but enforcement is not as strong as that in the United States. These competitor products may compete with our product candidates, and our and our licensors’ patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

Various companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of many countries do not favor the enforcement of patents and other intellectual property protection, particularly those relating to pharmaceuticals, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our and our licensors’ patents or marketing of competing products in violation of our proprietary rights.

Various countries outside the United States have compulsory licensing laws under which a patent owner may be compelled to grant licenses to third parties. In addition, many countries limit the enforceability of patents against government agencies or government contractors. As a result, a patent owner may have limited remedies in certain circumstances, which could materially diminish the value of such patent. If we or our licensors are forced to grant a license to third parties with respect to any patents relevant to our business, our competitive position may be impaired, and our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may be adversely affected. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license.

Further, the standards applied by the USPTO and foreign patent offices in granting patents are not always applied uniformly or predictably. As such, we do not know the degree of future protection that we will have on our product candidates. While we will endeavor to try to protect our product candidates with intellectual property rights such as patents, as appropriate, the process of obtaining patents is time-consuming, expensive and unpredictable.

Intellectual property rights do not necessarily address all potential threats to our competitive advantage.

The degree of future protection afforded by our intellectual property rights is uncertain because intellectual property rights have limitations and may not adequately protect our business or permit us to maintain our competitive advantage. For example:

Should any of these or similar events occur, they could significantly harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

We may be involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or other intellectual property, which could be expensive, time-consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors or other third parties may infringe our patents, trademarks or other intellectual property. To counter infringement or unauthorized use, we or one of our licensing partners may file infringement claims, which can be expensive and time consuming and divert the time and attention of our management and scientific personnel. Our or our licensors’ pending patent applications cannot be enforced against third parties practicing the technology claimed in such applications unless and until a patent issues from such applications. Claims we assert against perceived infringers could provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us alleging that we infringe their patents, in addition to counterclaims asserting that our patents or our licensors’ patents are invalid or unenforceable, or both. In patent litigation in the United States, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity and/or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a validity challenge could be an alleged failure to meet any of several statutory requirements, including lack of novelty, obviousness, non-enablement, insufficient written description or failure to claim patent-eligible subject matter. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could be an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld relevant information from the USPTO or made a misleading statement during prosecution. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable. In any patent infringement proceeding, there is a risk that a court will decide that a patent of ours or our licensors is invalid or unenforceable, in whole or in part, and that we do not have the right to stop the other party from using the invention at issue. There is also a risk that, even if the validity of such patents is upheld, the court will construe the patent’s claims narrowly or decide that we do not have the right to stop the other party from using the invention at issue on the grounds that our or our licensors’ patent claims do not cover the invention, or decide that the other party’s use of our or our licensors’ patented technology falls under the safe harbor to patent infringement under 35 U.S.C. §271(e)(1). An adverse outcome in a litigation or proceeding involving our or our licensors’ patents could limit our ability to assert our or our licensors’ patents against those parties or other competitors and may curtail or preclude our ability to exclude third parties from making and selling similar or competitive products. Any of these occurrences could adversely affect our competitive position, business, financial condition, results of operations or prospects. Similarly, if we assert trademark infringement claims, a court may determine that the marks we have asserted are invalid or unenforceable, or that the party against whom we have asserted trademark infringement has superior rights to the marks in question. In this case, we could ultimately be forced to cease use of such trademarks.

Even if we establish infringement, the court may decide not to grant an injunction against further infringing activity and instead award only monetary damages, which may or may not be an adequate remedy. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during litigation. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could adversely affect the price of shares of our common stock. Moreover, we may not have sufficient financial or other resources to file and pursue such infringement claims, which typically last for years before they are concluded. Even if we ultimately prevail in such claims, the monetary cost of such litigation and the diversion of the attention of our management and scientific personnel could outweigh any benefit we receive as a result of the proceedings. Our competitors or other third parties may be able to sustain the costs of complex patent litigation or proceedings more effectively than we can because of their greater financial resources and more mature and developed intellectual property portfolios. In such cases, we may decide that the more prudent course of action is to simply monitor the situation or initiate or seek some other non-litigious action or solution. In addition, the uncertainties associated with litigation could compromise our ability to raise the funds necessary to continue our clinical trials, continue our internal research programs, in- license needed technologies or other product candidates or enter into development partnerships that would help us bring our product candidates to market.

We may not be able to prevent, alone or with our licensors, misappropriation of our proprietary or confidential information, particularly in countries where the laws may not protect those rights as fully as in the United States.

Intellectual property rights of third parties could adversely affect our ability to commercialize our current or other product candidates, and we, our licensors or collaborators, or any future strategic partners may become subject to third party claims or litigation alleging infringement of patents or other proprietary rights or seeking to invalidate patents or other proprietary rights. We might be required to litigate or obtain licenses from third parties in order to develop or market our current or other product candidates. Such litigation or licenses could be costly or not available on commercially reasonable terms.

Our commercial success depends on our ability to develop, manufacture, market and sell our product candidates without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating the valid intellectual property and other proprietary rights of third parties. Identifying third-party patent rights that may be relevant to our operations is difficult because patent searching is imperfect due to differences in terminology among patents, incomplete databases and the difficulty in assessing the meaning of patent claims. We cannot guarantee that any of our patent searches or analyses, including the identification of relevant patents, the scope of patent claims or the expiration of relevant patents, are complete or thorough, nor can we be certain that we have identified each and every third-party patent and pending application in the United States and abroad that is relevant to or necessary for the commercialization of our product candidates in any jurisdiction.

We do not always conduct independent reviews of pending patent applications of and patents issued to third parties. Patent applications in the United States and elsewhere are typically published approximately 18 months after the earliest filing for which priority is claimed, with such earliest filing date being commonly referred to as the priority date. Certain U.S. applications that will not be filed outside the United States can remain confidential until patents issue. In addition, patent applications in the United States and elsewhere can be pending for many years before issuance, or unintentionally abandoned patents or applications can be revived. Furthermore, pending patent applications that have been published can, subject to certain limitations, be later amended in a manner that could cover our product candidates or the use of our product candidates. As such, there may be applications of others now pending or recently revived patents of which we are unaware.

The scope of a patent claim is determined by an interpretation of the law, the written disclosure in a patent and the patent’s prosecution history. Our interpretation of the relevance or the scope of a patent or a pending application may be incorrect. For example, we may incorrectly determine that our product candidates are not covered by a third-party patent or may incorrectly predict whether a third-party’s pending application will issue with claims of relevant scope. Our determination of the expiration date of any patent in the United States or abroad that we consider relevant may be incorrect. Our failure to identify and correctly interpret relevant patents may negatively impact our ability to develop and market our product candidates.

Litigation or other legal proceedings relating to intellectual property claims, with or without merit, is unpredictable and generally expensive and time consuming and, even if resolved in our favor, is likely to divert significant resources from our core business, including distracting our technical and management personnel from their normal responsibilities. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments which could adversely affect the market price of our common stock and harm our reputation. Such litigation or proceedings could substantially increase our operating losses and reduce the resources available for development activities or any future sales, marketing or distribution activities. We may not have sufficient financial or other resources to adequately conduct such litigation or proceedings. Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of such litigation or proceedings more effectively than we can because of their greater financial resources and more mature and developed intellectual property portfolios. Uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of patent litigation or other proceedings could adversely affect our ability to compete in the marketplace.

There is a substantial amount of intellectual property litigation in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, and we may become party to, or threatened with, litigation or other adversarial proceedings regarding intellectual property rights with respect to our product candidates. We cannot be certain that our product candidates will not infringe existing or future valid patents owned by third parties. Third parties may assert infringement claims against us based on existing or future intellectual property rights, regardless of their merit. We may decide in the future to seek a license to such third-party patents or other intellectual property rights, but we might not be able to do so on reasonable terms. Proving patent invalidity may be difficult. For example, in the United States, proving invalidity in court requires a showing of clear and convincing evidence to overcome the presumption of validity enjoyed by issued patents. As this burden is a high one, a court of competent jurisdiction may not invalidate the claims of any such United States patent or find that our product candidates do not infringe any such claims. If we are found to infringe, misappropriate or otherwise violate a third party’s intellectual property rights, we could be forced, including by court order, to cease developing, manufacturing or commercializing the infringing technology or product candidate. Further, we may be required to redesign the technology or product candidate in a non-infringing manner, which may not be commercially feasible. Alternatively, we may be required to obtain a license from such third party in order to use the infringing technology and continue developing, manufacturing or marketing the infringing product candidate. However, we may not be able to obtain any required license on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Even if we were able to obtain a

license, it could be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us, and it could require us to make substantial licensing and royalty payments. In addition, we could be found liable for monetary damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees if we are found to have willfully infringed a patent. A finding of infringement could prevent us from commercializing our product candidates or force us to cease some of our business operations, which could materially harm our business. Claims that we have misappropriated the confidential information or trade secrets of third parties could have a similar negative impact on our business.

We may choose to challenge the enforceability or validity of claims in a third party’s U.S. patent by requesting that the USPTO review the patent claims in an ex-parte reexamination, inter partes review or post-grant review proceedings. These proceedings are expensive and may consume our time or other resources. We may choose to challenge a third party’s patent in patent opposition proceedings in the European Patent Office (“EPO”), or other foreign patent office. The costs of these opposition proceedings could be substantial and may consume our time or other resources. If we fail to obtain a favorable result at the USPTO, EPO or other patent office then we may be exposed to litigation by a third party alleging that the patent may be infringed by our product candidates. Further, third-party patents or other intellectual property rights may be enforced against our current technology, including our research programs, product candidates, and their respective methods of use, manufacture and formulations thereof, which could result in either an injunction prohibiting our manufacture or future sales, or, with respect to our future sales, an obligation on our part to pay royalties and/or other forms of compensation to third parties, which could be significant.

Changes in patent law in the United States and other jurisdictions could diminish the value of patents in general, thereby impairing our ability to protect our product candidates.

As is the case with other biopharmaceutical companies, our success is heavily dependent on intellectual property, particularly patents. Obtaining, defending, maintaining and enforcing patents in the biopharmaceutical industry involves both technological and legal complexity and is therefore costly, time consuming and inherently uncertain. Changes in either the patent laws or interpretation of the patent laws in the United States could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of patent applications and the enforcement or defense of issued patents, and may diminish our ability to protect our inventions, obtain, maintain, enforce and protect our intellectual property rights and, more generally, could affect the value of our intellectual property or narrow the scope of our future owned and licensed patents. Patent reform legislation in the United States and other countries, including the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (the “Leahy-Smith Act”), signed into law on September 16, 2011, could increase those uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our future issued patents. The Leahy-Smith Act includes a number of significant changes to U.S. patent law. These include provisions that affect the way patent applications are prosecuted, redefine prior art and provide more efficient and cost-effective avenues for competitors to challenge the validity of patents. These include allowing third-party submission of prior art to the USPTO during patent prosecution and additional procedures to attack the validity of a patent by USPTO administered post-grant proceedings, including post-grant review, inter partes review, and derivation proceedings.

In addition, the patent positions of companies in the development and commercialization of pharmaceuticals are particularly uncertain. Changes in either the patent laws or interpretation of the patent laws in the United States or in other jurisdictions could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of patent applications and the enforcement or defense of issued patents. In the United States, numerous recent changes to the patent laws and proposed changes to the rules of the USPTO may have a significant impact on our ability to protect our technology, products and enforce our intellectual property rights. We cannot assure you that subsequent rulings will not adversely impact our patents or patent applications. In addition to increasing uncertainty regarding our ability to obtain patents in the future, this combination of events has created uncertainty with respect to the value of patents, once granted.

Depending on decisions by the U.S. Congress, the federal courts and the USPTO, and similar legislative and regulatory bodies in other countries in which we may pursue patent protection, the laws and regulations governing patents could change in unpredictable ways, particularly with respect to pharmaceutical patent protection, that would weaken our ability to obtain new patents or to enforce our or our licensors’ or collaborators’ existing patents and patents that we might obtain in the future.

We cannot predict how future decisions by the courts, the U.S. Congress or the USPTO may impact the value of our patents. Any similar adverse change in the patent laws of other jurisdictions could also adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

In 2012, the European Union Patent Package (the “EU Patent Package”) regulations were passed with the goal of providing a single pan-European Unitary Patent and a new European Unified Patent Court (“UPC”) for litigation involving European patents. The EU Patent Package was implemented on June 1, 2023. As a result, all European patents, including those issued prior to ratification of the EU Patent Package, now by default automatically fall under the jurisdiction of the UPC, unless otherwise opted out. It is uncertain how the UPC will impact granted European patents in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries. Our owned or licensed European patent applications, if issued, could be challenged in the UPC. During the first seven years of the UPC’s existence, the UPC legislation allows a patent owner to opt its European patents out of the jurisdiction

of the UPC. We may decide to opt out our owned or licensed future European patents from the UPC but doing so may preclude us from realizing the benefits of the UPC. Moreover, if the patent owner of our owned or licensed future European patents do not meet all of the formalities and requirements for opt-out under the UPC, said future European patents could remain under the jurisdiction of the UPC. The UPC will provide our competitors with a new forum to centrally revoke our owned or licensed European patents and allow for the possibility of a competitor to obtain a pan-European injunction in UPC member states. Such a loss of patent protection could have a material adverse impact on our business and our ability to commercialize our technology and any other product candidates due to increased competition and, resultantly, on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects in Europe. The UPC and Unitary Patent are significant changes in European patent practice. As the UPC is a new court system, there is no precedent for the court, increasing the uncertainty of any litigation in the UPC.

We may become subject to claims challenging the inventorship or ownership of our or our licensors’ patents and other intellectual property.

We may be subject to claims that former employees, collaborators or other third parties have an interest in our or our licensors’ patents or other intellectual property as an inventor or co-inventor. The failure to name the proper inventors on a patent application can result in the patents issuing thereon being unenforceable. Inventorship disputes may arise from conflicting views regarding the contributions of different individuals named as inventors, the effects of foreign laws where foreign nationals are involved in the development of the subject matter of the patent, conflicting obligations of third parties involved in developing our product candidates or as a result of questions regarding co-ownership of potential joint inventions. Litigation may be necessary to resolve these and other claims challenging inventorship or ownership. Alternatively, or additionally, we may enter into agreements to clarify the scope of our rights in such intellectual property. If we fail to defend any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights, such as exclusive ownership of, or right to use, valuable intellectual property. Such an outcome could adversely affect our business. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management and other employees.

Our current or future licensors may have relied on third-party consultants or collaborators or on funds from third parties, such as the U.S. government, such that our licensors are not the sole and exclusive owners of the patents we in-licensed. If other third parties have ownership rights or other rights to our in-licensed patents, they may be able to license such patents to our competitors, and our competitors could market competing products and technology. This could adversely affect our competitive position, business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

In addition, while it is our policy to require our employees and contractors who may be involved in the conception or development of intellectual property to execute agreements assigning such intellectual property to us, we may be unsuccessful in executing such an agreement with each party who, in fact, conceives or develops intellectual property that we regard as our own. The assignment of intellectual property rights may not be self-executing, or the assignment agreements may be breached, and we may be forced to bring claims against third parties, or defend claims that they may bring against us, to determine the ownership of what we regard as our intellectual property. Such claims could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Patent terms may be inadequate to protect our competitive position on products or product candidates for an adequate amount of time.

Patents have a limited lifespan. In the United States, if all maintenance fees are timely paid, the natural expiration of a patent is generally 20 years from its earliest U.S. non-provisional or international patent application filing date. Various extensions may be available, but the life of a patent, and the protection it affords, is limited. Even if patents covering our products or product candidates are obtained, once the patent life has expired, we may be open to competition from competitive products, including generics or biosimilars. Given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of products or new product candidates, patents protecting such products or candidates might expire before or shortly after such products or candidates are commercialized. As a result, our owned and licensed patent portfolio may not provide us with sufficient and continuing rights to exclude others from commercializing products similar or identical to ours. For example, the patents covering TRB-061 and TRB-071’s composition of matter expire in September 2044 and June 2046, respectively, excluding any extension of patent term that may be available.

Obtaining and maintaining patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by government patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated as a result of noncompliance with these requirements.

Periodic maintenance fees, renewal fees, annuity fees and various other government fees on patents and/or applications will be due to be paid to the USPTO and various government patent agencies outside of the United States over the lifetime of our owned or licensed patents and patent applications. We rely on our outside counsel or our licensing partners to pay these fees due to U.S. and non-U.S. patent agencies. The USPTO and various non-U.S. government patent agencies require compliance with several procedural, documentary, fee payment and other similar provisions during the patent application process. We are also dependent on our licensors to take the necessary action to comply with these requirements with respect to our licensed intellectual property. In many cases, an inadvertent lapse can be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules. There are situations, however, in which noncompliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. In such an event, potential competitors might be able to enter the market and this circumstance could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

If we do not obtain patent term extension for our product candidates, our business may be materially harmed.

Depending upon the timing, duration and specifics of any FDA approval of any of our product candidates, one or more of our or our licensors’ issued U.S. patents or issued U.S. patents that we may own in the future may be eligible for limited patent term extension (“PTE”) under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Action of 1984 (the “Hatch-Waxman Amendments”), which permit a PTE of up to five years as compensation for patent term lost during the FDA regulatory review process. A patent term extension cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the date of product approval, only one patent may be extended and only those claims covering the approved drug, a method for using it or a method for manufacturing it may be extended. Similar patent term restoration provisions to compensate for commercialization delay caused by regulatory review are also available in certain foreign jurisdictions, such as in Europe under Supplemental Protection Certificate. However, we may not be granted any extensions for which we apply because of, for example, failing to exercise due diligence during the testing phase or regulatory review process, failing to apply within applicable deadlines, failing to apply prior to expiration of relevant patents, or otherwise failing to satisfy applicable requirements. In addition, to the extent we wish to pursue patent term extension based on a patent that we in-license from a third party, we would need the cooperation of that third party. Moreover, the applicable time period or the scope of patent protection afforded could be less than we request. If we are unable to obtain patent term extension, or the term of any such extension is less than we request, our competitors may obtain approval of competing products following our patent expiration, and our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects could be materially harmed.

If approved, our product candidates that are regulated as biological products (“biologics”), may face competition from biosimilars approved through an abbreviated regulatory pathway.

Regulatory authorities in some jurisdictions, including the U.S. and Europe, allow for abbreviated approval processes for generic and/or biosimilar products. In the United States, the Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009 (“BPCIA”) was enacted as part of the ACA, to establish an abbreviated pathway for the approval of biosimilar and interchangeable with an FDA-licensed reference biologic product. The regulatory pathway establishes legal authority for the FDA to review and approve biosimilar biologics, including the possible designation of a biosimilar as “interchangeable” based on its similarity to an approved biologic. Under the BPCIA the FDA will not accept an application for a biosimilar or interchangeable product based on the reference biological product until four years after the date of first licensure of the reference product. In addition, the approval of a biosimilar product may not be made effective by the FDA until 12 years from the date on which the reference product was first licensed. During this 12-year period of exclusivity, another company may still develop and receive approval of a competing biologic using that company’s own preclinical data and data from adequate and well-controlled clinical trials to demonstrate the safety, purity and potency of its product, so long as their BLA does not rely on the reference product or sponsor’s data or submit the application as a biosimilar application. The law is complex and is still being interpreted and implemented by the FDA. As a result, its ultimate impact, implementation and meaning are subject to uncertainty, and any new policies or processes adopted by the FDA could have a material adverse effect on the future commercial prospects for our biological products.

We believe that any of the product candidates we develop that is approved in the United States as a biological product under a BLA should qualify for the 12-year period of exclusivity. However, there is a risk that this exclusivity could be shortened due to congressional action or otherwise, or that the FDA will not consider the subject product candidate to be a reference product for competing products, potentially creating the opportunity for biosimilar competition sooner than anticipated. Moreover, the extent to which a biosimilar, once approved, will be substituted for any one of the reference products in a way that is similar to traditional generic substitution for non-biological products is not yet clear, and will depend on a number of marketplace and regulatory factors that are still developing. For example, in recent years, the FDA has sought to reduce the data required for biosimilar product sponsors to demonstrate biosimilarity to, or interchangeability with, a biologic reference product.

The approval of a biosimilar of our product candidates could have a material adverse impact on our business due to increased competition and pricing pressure. If competitors are able to obtain regulatory approval for biosimilars referencing our product candidates, our product candidates may become subject to competition from such biosimilars, with the attendant competitive pressure and consequences.

Laws and regulations outside the United States differ, including the length and extent of patent and exclusivity protection and pathways for competition to enter the market. Other countries may have significantly shorter or longer periods of exclusivity. In addition, other countries may have different standards in determining similarity to a reference product. Any market entry of competing products to our product candidates in these other regions could adversely affect our business in those regions. To the extent that we do not receive any anticipated periods of regulatory exclusivity for our product candidates it could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

If we are unable to protect the confidentiality of our trade secrets, our business and competitive position would be harmed.

In addition to the protection afforded by patents, we rely on trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect proprietary know-how that is not patentable or that we elect not to patent, processes for which patents are difficult to enforce and any other elements of our discovery and development processes that involve proprietary know-how, information or technology that is not covered by patents. We may also rely on trade secret protection as temporary protection for concepts that may be included in a future patent filing. However, trade secret protection will not protect us from innovations that a competitor develops independently of our proprietary know how. If a competitor independently develops a technology that we protect as a trade secret and files a patent application on that technology, then we may not be able to patent that technology in the future, may require a license from the competitor to use our own know-how, and if the license is not available on commercially viable terms, then we may not be able to launch our product candidate. Additionally, trade secrets can be difficult to protect and some courts inside and outside the United States are less willing or unwilling to protect trade secrets. Although we require all of our employees to assign their inventions to us, and require all of our employees, consultants, advisors and any third parties who have access to our proprietary know-how, information or technology to enter into confidentiality agreements, our trade secrets and other confidential proprietary information could be disclosed or competitors could otherwise gain access to our trade secrets. If our trade secrets are not adequately protected, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects could be adversely affected.

If our trademarks and trade names are not adequately protected, then we may not be able to build name recognition in our markets of interest and our business may be adversely affected.

Our registered or unregistered trademarks or trade names may be challenged, infringed, circumvented or declared generic or determined to be infringing on other marks. During trademark registration proceedings, we may receive rejections of our applications by the USPTO or in other foreign jurisdictions. Although we are given an opportunity to respond to such rejections, we may be unable to overcome them. In addition, in the USPTO and in comparable agencies in many foreign jurisdictions, third parties are given an opportunity to oppose pending trademark applications and to seek to cancel registered trademarks. Opposition or cancellation proceedings may be filed against our trademarks, which may not survive such proceedings. Moreover, any name we have proposed to use with our product candidate in the United States must be approved by the FDA, regardless of whether we have registered it, or applied to register it, as a trademark.

Similar requirements exist in Europe. The FDA typically conducts a review of proposed product names, including an evaluation of potential for confusion with other product names. If the FDA or an equivalent administrative body in a foreign jurisdiction objects to any of our proposed proprietary product names, we may be required to expend significant additional resources in an effort to identify a suitable substitute name that would qualify under applicable trademark laws, not infringe the existing rights of third parties and be acceptable to the FDA. Furthermore, in many countries, owning and maintaining a trademark registration may not provide an adequate defense against a subsequent infringement claim asserted by the owner of a senior trademark.

We may not be able to protect our rights to these trademarks and trade names, which we need to build name recognition among potential partners or customers in our markets of interest. At times, competitors or other third parties may adopt trade names or trademarks similar to ours, thereby impeding our ability to build brand identity and possibly leading to market confusion. In addition, there could be potential trade name or trademark infringement claims brought by owners of other registered trademarks or trademarks that incorporate variations of our registered or unregistered trademarks or trade names. Over the long term, if we are unable to establish name recognition based on our trademarks and trade names, then we may not be able to compete effectively and our business may be adversely affected. Our efforts to enforce or protect our proprietary rights related to trademarks, trade names, domain name or other intellectual property may be ineffective and could result in substantial costs and diversion of resources and could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

We may be subject to claims asserting that our employees, consultants, advisors or other third parties have wrongfully used or disclosed alleged trade secrets of their current or former employers or claims asserting ownership of what we regard as our own intellectual property.

Certain of our employees, consultants, advisors or other third parties have in the past and may in the future be employed at universities or other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies, including our competitors or potential competitors. Although we try to ensure that our employees, consultants and advisors do not use the proprietary information or know-how of others in their work for us, we may be subject to claims that these individuals or we have used or disclosed intellectual property, including trade secrets or other proprietary information, of any such individual’s current or former employer. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights. An inability to incorporate such technologies or features would harm our business and may prevent us from successfully commercializing our product candidates. In addition, we may lose personnel as a result of such claims and any such litigation or the threat thereof may adversely affect our ability to hire employees or contract with independent contractors. A loss of key personnel or their work product could hamper or prevent our ability to commercialize our product candidates, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management.

In addition, former employees, consultants, advisors or other third parties may assert an ownership right in our owned or licensed patents or patent applications. An adverse determination in any such submission or proceeding may result in loss of exclusivity or freedom to operate or in patent claims being narrowed, invalidated or held unenforceable, in whole or in part, which could limit our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar technology and therapeutics, without payment to us, or could limit the duration of the patent protection covering our product candidates. Such challenges may also result in our inability to develop, manufacture or commercialize our product candidates without infringing third-party patent rights. In addition, if the breadth or strength of protection provided by our owned or licensed patents and patent applications is threatened, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to license, develop or commercialize current or other product candidates. Any of the foregoing could adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Rights to improvements to our product candidates may be held by third parties.

In the course of testing our current or other product candidates, we have entered and may enter into agreements with third parties to conduct clinical testing, which do and may provide that improvements to our product candidates may be owned solely by a third party or jointly between the parties. If we determine that rights to such improvements owned solely by a third party are necessary to commercialize our product candidates or maintain our competitive advantage, we may need to obtain a license from such third party in order to use the improvements and continue developing, manufacturing or marketing the product candidates. However, we may not be able to obtain any required license on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Even if we were able to obtain such a license, it could be granted on non-exclusive terms, thereby potentially giving our competitors and other third parties access to the same technologies licensed to us. Failure to obtain a license on commercially reasonable terms or at all, or to obtain an exclusive license, could prevent us from commercializing our current or other product candidates or force us to cease some of our business operations, which could materially harm our business. If we determine that rights to improvements jointly owned between us and a third party are necessary to commercialize our product candidates or maintain our competitive advantage, we may need to obtain an exclusive license from such third party. If we are unable to obtain an exclusive license to any such third-party co-owners’ interest in such improvements, such co-owners may be able to license their rights to other parties, including our competitors, and our competitors could market competing products and technology. In addition, we may need the cooperation of any such co-owners of our intellectual property in order to enforce such intellectual property against other parties, and such cooperation may not be provided to us. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our competitive position, business, financial conditions, results of operations and prospects.

Our intellectual property licensed from third parties may be subject to retained rights.

Our future licensors may retain certain rights under their agreements with us, including the right to use the underlying technology for noncommercial academic and research use, to publish general scientific findings from research related to the technology and to make customary scientific and scholarly disclosures of information relating to the technology. It is difficult to monitor whether our licensors limit their use of the technology to these uses, and we could incur substantial expenses to enforce our rights to our licensed technology in the event of misuse.

Government agencies may provide funding, facilities, personnel or other assistance in connection with the development of the intellectual property rights owned by or licensed to us. Such government agencies may have retained rights in such intellectual property. The United States federal government retains certain rights in inventions produced with its financial assistance under the Bayh-Dole Act, including the right to grant or require us to grant mandatory licenses or sublicenses to such intellectual property to third parties under certain specified circumstances, including if it is necessary to meet health and safety needs that we are not reasonably satisfying or if it is necessary to meet requirements for public use specified by federal regulations, or to manufacture products in the United States. Any exercise of such rights, including with respect to any such required sublicense of these licenses could result in the loss of significant rights and could harm our ability to commercialize licensed products. Co-developed intellectual property may be subject to government rights pursuant to the Bayh-Dole Act. If, in the future, we co-own or license in technology which is critical to our business that is developed in whole or in part with federal funds subject to the Bayh-Dole Act, our ability to enforce or otherwise exploit patents covering such technology may be adversely affected.

Risks Related to this Offering and Ownership of Our Common Stock

An active and liquid trading market for our common stock may not develop, and you may not be able to resell your shares of common stock at or above the public offering price, if at all.

Prior to this offering, no market for shares of our common stock existed. Our common stock has been approved for listing on Nasdaq under the symbol “TRXB”. After the consummation of this offering, an active or liquid trading market for our common stock may never develop or be sustained following the completion of this offering. To the extent certain of our existing stockholders and their affiliated entities participate in this offering, such purchases would reduce the non-affiliated public float of our shares, meaning the number of shares of our common stock that are not held by officers, directors and affiliated stockholders. A reduction in the public float could reduce the number of shares that are available to be traded at any given time, thereby adversely impacting the liquidity of our common stock and depressing the price at which you may be able to sell your shares. Moreover, the initial public offering price for our common stock was determined through negotiations with the underwriters, and will vary from the market price of our common stock following the completion of this offering. As a result of these and other factors, you may be unable to resell your shares of our common stock at or above the initial public offering price or at a price that you consider reasonable. Furthermore, an inactive market may reduce the fair market value of your shares, impair our ability to raise capital by selling shares of our common stock in the future, and may impair our ability to enter into strategic collaborations or acquire companies or products by using our shares of common stock as consideration.

The market price of our common stock may be volatile, which could result in substantial losses for investors purchasing shares in this offering.

The initial public offering price for our common stock was determined through negotiations with the underwriters. This initial public offering price may vary from the market price of our common stock after the offering. As a result, you may not be able to sell your common stock at or above the initial public offering price. Some of the factors that may cause the market price of our common stock to fluctuate include:

In recent years, the stock market in general, and the market for pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies in particular, has experienced significant price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to changes in the operating performance of the companies whose stock is experiencing those price and volume fluctuations. Broad market and industry factors may seriously affect the market price of our common stock, regardless of our actual operating performance. These fluctuations may be even more pronounced in the trading market for our stock shortly following the completion of this offering. The market price of our common stock may decline below the initial public offering price, and you may lose some or all of your investment. Following periods of such volatility in the market price of a company’s securities, securities class action litigation has often been brought against that company. Because of the potential volatility of our stock price, we may become the target of securities litigation in the future.

You will incur immediate and substantial dilution as a result of the completion of this offering.

If you purchase common stock in this offering, you will incur immediate and substantial dilution of $ per share, representing the difference between the initial public offering price of $ per share, and our pro forma net tangible book value per share as of , 2026 after giving effect to the completion of this offering. To the extent that shares are issued upon the exercise of options or the underwriters exercise their over-allotment option, you will incur further dilution. For a further description of the dilution you will experience immediately after the completion of this offering, see the section titled “Dilution.”

A significant portion of our total outstanding shares is restricted from immediate resale but may be sold into the market in the near future, which could cause the market price of our common stock to decline significantly, even if our business is doing well.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could occur at any time. These sales upon the expiration of the lock-up agreements (described in the “Underwriting” section of this prospectus), the early release of the lock-ups, or the perception in the market that the holders of a large number of shares of common stock intend to sell shares, could reduce the market price of our common stock. After the completion of this offering, we will have shares of common stock outstanding, or shares if the underwriters exercise their over-allotment option in full, in each case

based on the shares of our common stock outstanding as of June 30, 2026. Of these shares, the shares (or shares if the underwriters exercise their over-allotment option in full) we are selling in this offering may be resold in the public market immediately, unless purchased by our affiliates. The remaining shares are currently restricted under securities laws or as a result of lock-up or other agreements but will be able to be sold after the completion of this offering as described in the “Shares Eligible for Future Sale” section of this prospectus. The representatives of the underwriters may release some or all of the shares of common stock subject to lock-up agreements at any time in their sole discretion and without notice, except for directors and officers, which would allow for earlier sales of shares in the public market.

Moreover, after the completion of this offering, holders of an aggregate of shares of our common stock will have rights, subject to conditions, to require us to file registration statements covering their shares or to include their shares in registration statements that we may file for ourselves or other stockholders. We also plan to register all shares of common stock that we may issue under our equity compensation plans or that are issuable upon exercise of outstanding options. Once we register these shares, they can be freely sold in the public market upon issuance and once vested, subject to volume limitations applicable to affiliates and the lock-up agreements described in the “Underwriting” section of this prospectus. If any of these additional shares are sold, or if it is perceived that they will be sold, in the public market, the market price of our common stock could decline.

Insiders will continue to have substantial influence over us after the completion of this offering, which could limit your ability to affect the outcome of key transactions, including a change of control.

After the completion of this offering, our directors, executive officers and greater than 5% stockholders and their affiliates, in the aggregate, will beneficially own shares representing approximately % of our outstanding common stock (assuming no exercise of the underwriters’ over-allotment option and no exercise of outstanding options and excluding any purchases that may be made in this offering). As a result, these stockholders, if they act together, will be able to influence our management and affairs and all matters requiring stockholder approval, including the election of directors and approval of significant corporate transactions. The interests of these holders may not always coincide with our corporate interests or the interests of other stockholders, and they may act in a manner with which you may not agree or that may not be in the best interests of our other stockholders. This concentration of ownership may have the effect of delaying or preventing a change in control of our company and might affect the market price of our common stock.

Because we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our common stock in the foreseeable future, capital appreciation, if any, will be your sole source of gain.

We have never declared or paid any cash dividends on our common stock. We currently anticipate that we will retain future earnings for the development, operation and expansion of our business and do not anticipate declaring or paying any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, of our common stock will be your sole source of gain on an investment in our common stock in the foreseeable future. See the section titled “Dividend Policy” for additional information.

Participation in this offering by our existing stockholders and/or their affiliated entities may reduce the public float for our common stock.

To the extent certain of our existing stockholders and their affiliated entities participate in this offering, such purchases would reduce the non-affiliate public float of our shares, meaning the number of shares of our common stock that are not held by officers, directors and controlling stockholders. A reduction in the public float could reduce the number of shares that are available to be traded at any given time, thereby adversely impacting the liquidity of our common stock and depressing the price at which you may be able to sell shares of common stock purchased in this offering. While certain of our existing stockholders and their affiliated entities have expressed interest in potentially participating in this offering, they may not participate in the offering to a material extent, or at all.

We are an emerging growth company (“EGC”) and a smaller reporting company, and the reduced reporting requirements applicable to EGCs and smaller reporting companies may make our common stock less attractive to investors.

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the JOBS Act and we may remain an emerging growth company until December 31, 2031. For so long as we remain an emerging growth company, we are permitted and plan to rely on exemptions from certain disclosure requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies. These exemptions include not being required to comply with the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, not being required to comply with any requirement that may be adopted by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board regarding mandatory audit firm rotation or a supplement to the auditor’s report providing additional information about the audit and the financial statements, reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation, and exemptions from the requirements of holding a nonbinding advisory vote on executive compensation and stockholder approval of any golden parachute payments not previously approved. As a result, the information we provide stockholders will be different than the information that is available with respect to other public companies. In this prospectus, we have not included all of the executive compensation related information that would be required if we were not an emerging growth company. We cannot predict whether investors will find our common stock less attractive if we rely on these exemptions. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock, and our stock price may be more volatile.

In addition, the JOBS Act provides that an emerging growth company can take advantage of an extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards. This allows an emerging growth company to delay the adoption of certain accounting standards until those standards would otherwise apply to private companies. We have elected not to “opt out” of such extended transition period, which means that when a standard is issued or revised and it has different application dates for public or private companies, we will adopt the new or revised standard at the time private companies adopt the new or revised standard and will do so until such time that we either (i) irrevocably elect to “opt out” of such extended transition period, or (ii) no longer qualify as an emerging growth company. Therefore, the reported results of operations contained in our financial statements may not be directly comparable to those of other public companies.

We are also a “smaller reporting company” as defined in the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, (as amended, the “Exchange Act”). We may continue to be a smaller reporting company even after we are no longer an emerging growth company. We may take advantage of certain of the scaled disclosures available to smaller reporting companies and will be able to take advantage of these scaled disclosures for so long as our common stock held by non-affiliates is less than $250.0 million measured on the last business day of our second fiscal quarter, or our annual revenue is less than $100.0 million during the most recently completed fiscal year and our common stock held by non-affiliates is less than $700.0 million measured on the last business day of our second fiscal quarter.

Provisions in our Restated Charter, our Restated Bylaws and Delaware law may have anti-takeover effects that could discourage an acquisition of us by others, even if an acquisition would be beneficial to our stockholders, and may prevent attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management.

Our Restated Charter and Restated Bylaws, which will become effective prior to the completion of this offering, and Delaware law contain provisions that may have the effect of discouraging, delaying or preventing a change in control of us or changes in our management that stockholders may consider favorable, including transactions in which you might otherwise receive a premium for your shares. Our Restated Charter and Restated Bylaws, which will become effective prior to the completion of this offering, include provisions that:

These provisions, alone or together, could delay or prevent hostile takeovers and changes in control or changes in our management. These provisions could also limit the price that investors might be willing to pay in the future for shares of our common stock, thereby depressing the market price of our common stock.

In addition, because we are incorporated in the State of Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the General Corporation Law of the State of Delaware (“DGCL”) which prohibits a person who owns in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock from merging or combining with us for a period of three years after the date of the transaction in which the person acquired in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock, unless the merger or combination is approved in a prescribed manner.

Any provision of our Restated Charter, Restated Bylaws or Delaware law that has the effect of delaying or deterring a change in control could limit the opportunity for our stockholders to receive a premium for their shares of our common stock, and could also affect the price that some investors are willing to pay for our common stock.

Our Restated Charter will designate specific courts as the sole and exclusive forum for certain claims or causes of action that may be brought by our stockholders, which could discourage lawsuits against us and our directors and officers.

Our Restated Charter will provide that, subject to limited exceptions, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware (or, if, and only if, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware dismisses a Covered Claim (as defined below) for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, any other state or federal court in the State of Delaware that does have subject matter jurisdiction) will, to the fullest extent permitted by applicable law, be the sole and exclusive forum for the following types of claims: (i) any derivative claim brought in the right of the Company, (ii) any claim asserting a breach of a fiduciary duty to the Company or the Company’s stockholders owed by any current or former director, officer or other employee or stockholder of the Company, (iii) any claim against the Company arising pursuant to any provision of the DGCL, our Restated Charter or Restated Bylaws, (iv) any claim to interpret, apply, enforce or determine the validity of our Restated Charter or Restated Bylaws, (v) any claim against the Company governed by the internal affairs doctrine, and (vi) any other claim, not subject to exclusive federal jurisdiction and not asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended (the “Securities Act”), brought in any action asserting one or more of the claims specified in clauses (a)(i) through (v) herein above (each a “Covered Claim”). This provision would not apply to claims brought to enforce a duty or liability created by the Exchange Act.

Our Restated Charter will further provide that the federal district courts of the United States of America will be the exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act. In addition, our Restated Charter will provide that any person or entity purchasing or otherwise acquiring any interest in the shares of capital stock of the Company will be deemed to have notice of and consented to these choice-of-forum provisions and waived any argument relating to the inconvenience of the forums in connection with any Covered Claim.

The choice of forum provisions to be contained in our Restated Charter may limit a stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that it finds favorable for disputes with us or any of our directors, officers, other employees or stockholders, which may discourage lawsuits with respect to such claims, although our stockholders will not be deemed to have waived our compliance with federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder. While the Delaware courts have determined that such choice of forum provisions are facially valid, it is possible that a court of law in another jurisdiction could rule that the choice of forum provisions to be contained in our Restated Charter are inapplicable or unenforceable if they are challenged in a proceeding or otherwise, which could cause us to incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions. The choice of forum provisions may also impose additional litigation costs on stockholders who assert that the provisions are not enforceable or invalid.

We have broad discretion in the use of the net proceeds from this offering and may not use them effectively.

We cannot specify with certainty the particular uses of the net proceeds we will receive from this offering. Our management will have broad discretion in the application of the net proceeds, including for any of the purposes described in the “Use of Proceeds” section of this prospectus. Accordingly, you will have to rely upon the judgment of our management with respect to the use of the proceeds, with only limited information concerning management’s specific intentions. Our management may spend a portion or all of the net proceeds from this offering in ways that our stockholders may not desire or that may not yield a favorable return. The failure by our management to apply these funds effectively could harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. Pending their use, we may invest the net proceeds from this offering in a manner that does not produce income or that loses value.

General Risk Factors

Unstable economic and market conditions may have serious adverse consequences on our business, financial condition and stock price.

Global economic and business activities continue to face widespread uncertainties, and global credit and financial markets have experienced extreme volatility and disruptions in the past several years, including severely diminished liquidity and credit availability, fluctuating inflation and monetary supply shifts, rising interest rates, labor shortages, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, increases in unemployment rates, recession risks, tariffs and uncertainty about economic and geopolitical stability (for example, related to the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict and conflict in the Middle East). The extent of the impact of these conditions on our operational and financial performance, including our ability to execute our business strategies and initiatives in the expected timeframe, as well as that of third parties upon whom we rely, will depend on future developments which are uncertain and cannot be predicted. Further deterioration in economic or market conditions may occur, and challenges may persist for an unknown period of time. If the current equity and credit markets further deteriorate, or do not improve, it may make any necessary debt or equity financing more difficult, more costly, and more dilutive. Furthermore, our stock price may decline due in part to the volatility of the stock market and the general economic downturn.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, or if they publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, our stock price and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our common stock will be influenced in part by the research and reports that industry or securities analysts publish about us or our business. We do not have any control over the industry or securities analysts, or the content and opinions included in their reports and may never obtain research coverage by securities and industry analysts. If no or few securities or industry analysts commence coverage of us, or if analysts cease coverage of us, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, and the trading price for our common stock could be impacted negatively. If any of the analysts who cover us publish inaccurate or unfavorable research or opinions regarding us, our business model, our intellectual property or our stock performance, or if our preclinical studies and clinical trials and operating results fail to meet the expectations of analysts, our stock price would likely decline.

We will incur increased costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management will be required to devote substantial time to new compliance initiatives and corporate governance practices.

After the completion of this offering, as a public company, and particularly after we are no longer an emerging growth company, we will incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company. The Securities Act, the Exchange Act, Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the listing requirements of Nasdaq and other applicable securities rules and regulations impose various requirements on public companies, including establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and corporate governance practices. Our management and other personnel will need to devote a substantial amount of time to these compliance initiatives. Moreover, we expect these rules and regulations to substantially increase our legal and financial compliance costs and to make some activities more time consuming and costly. For example, we expect that these rules and regulations may make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance and we may be required to incur substantial costs to maintain sufficient coverage. We cannot predict or estimate the amount or timing of additional costs we may incur to respond to these requirements. The impact of these requirements could also make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified persons to serve on our board of directors, our board committees or as executive officers. The increased costs may require us to reduce costs in other areas of our business. Moreover, these rules and regulations are often subject to varying interpretations, in many cases due to their lack of specificity, and, as a result, their application in practice may evolve over time as new guidance is provided by regulatory and governing bodies. This could result in continuing uncertainty regarding compliance matters and higher costs necessitated by ongoing revisions to disclosure and governance practices.

Failure to establish and maintain effective internal control over financial reporting could adversely affect our business and if investors lose confidence in the accuracy and completeness of our financial reports, the market price of our common stock could be negatively affected.

We are not currently required to comply with the rules of the SEC implementing SOX Section 404 and are therefore not required to make a formal assessment of the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting for that purpose. Upon becoming a public company, we will be required to comply with the SEC’s rules implementing Sections 302 and 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which will require management to certify financial and other information in our quarterly and annual reports and provide an annual management report on the effectiveness of internal control over financial reporting. Although we will be required to disclose changes made in our internal control over financial reporting on a quarterly basis, we will not be required to make our first annual assessment of our internal control over financial reporting until our second annual report on Form 10-K. However, as an emerging growth company, our independent registered public accounting firm will not be

required to formally attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting until the later of the year following our first annual report required to be filed with the SEC or the date we are no longer an emerging growth company. At such time, our independent registered public accounting firm would need to issue a report that is adverse in the event that there are material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting.

As a private company, we do not currently have any internal audit function. To comply with the requirements of being a public company, we have undertaken various actions, and will need to take additional actions, such as implementing numerous internal controls and procedures and hiring additional accounting or internal audit staff or consultants. Testing and maintaining internal controls can divert our management’s attention from other matters that are important to the operation of our business.

We have identified a material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting. If we are unable to implement and maintain the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting, our investors may lose confidence in the accuracy and completeness of our financial reports, which could adversely affect our stock price.

We identified a material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting. A material weakness is a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of the annual or interim financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. The material weakness is related to the lack of sufficient internal technical accounting resources, which resulted in an overreliance on external advisors for complex accounting matters without maintaining adequate internal controls to review, validate, and document the resulting accounting positions and disclosures.

We are in the process of remediating this material weakness by hiring additional accounting and finance personnel with technical accounting and SEC reporting experience, enhancing our use of external specialists where appropriate, implementing improved review procedures and documentation requirements, and providing training to existing personnel. We cannot assure you that these measures will remediate the material weakness in a timely manner or that additional material weaknesses will not be identified in the future. The material weakness will not be considered remediated until management completes the design and implementation of the controls and the controls operate for a sufficient period of time and management has concluded, through testing, that these controls are effective. The measures we will take may not be sufficient to remediate the material weakness we have identified or avoid potential future material weaknesses. If the steps we take do not remediate the material weakness in a timely manner, we will be unable to conclude that we maintain effective internal control over financial reporting. Accordingly, there could continue to be a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of our financial statements would not be prevented or detected.

Our management will not be required to evaluate the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting in accordance with the provisions of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act until our second annual report on Form 10-K after the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part. As part of that evaluation, we may identify additional control deficiencies that are determined to constitute one or more material weaknesses. In addition, there can be no assurance that our remediation efforts will be successful, that our internal control over financial reporting will be effective as a result of these efforts, or that any future control deficiencies identified may not be material weaknesses that would be required to be reported in future periods.

If we are not able to comply with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in a timely manner, or if we are unable to maintain proper and effective internal controls over financial reporting, we may not be able to produce timely and accurate financial statements. If that were to happen, our investors could lose confidence in our reported financial information, the market price of our stock could decline, and we could be subject to sanctions or investigations by the stock exchange on which our common stock is listed, the SEC or other regulatory authorities.

Our disclosure controls and procedures may not prevent or detect all errors or acts of fraud.

Upon the closing of this offering, we will become subject to the periodic reporting requirements of the Exchange Act. We must design our disclosure controls and procedures to reasonably assure that information we must disclose in reports we file or submit under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to management, and recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the time periods specified in the rules and forms of the SEC. We believe that any disclosure controls and procedures, or internal controls and procedures, no matter how well-conceived and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the objectives of the control system are met.

These inherent limitations include the realities that judgments in decision-making can be faulty and that breakdowns can occur because of simple error or mistake. For example, our directors or executive officers could inadvertently fail to disclose a new relationship or arrangement causing us to fail to make any related person transaction disclosures. Additionally, controls can be circumvented by the individual acts of some persons, by collusion of two or more people or by an unauthorized override of the controls. Accordingly, because of the inherent limitations in our control system, misstatements due to error or fraud may occur and not be detected.

We may not be able to satisfy listing requirements of Nasdaq or obtain or maintain a listing of our common stock on Nasdaq.

If, after listing, we fail to satisfy Nasdaq’s continued listing requirements, such as the corporate governance requirements or the minimum closing bid price requirement, Nasdaq may take steps to delist our common stock. Such a delisting would likely have a negative effect on the price of our common stock and would impair your ability to sell or purchase our common stock when you wish to do so. In the event of a delisting, there may not be any action we can take to restore compliance with listing requirements that would allow our common stock to become listed again on the Nasdaq or any other securities exchange, stabilize the market price or improve the liquidity of our common stock, prevent our common stock from dropping below the Nasdaq minimum bid price requirement or prevent future non-compliance with Nasdaq’s listing requirements.

Our insurance policies are expensive and only protect us from some business risks, which will leave us exposed to significant uninsured liabilities.

While we maintain commercial insurance at a level we believe is appropriate against certain risks commonly insured in the industry in which we operate, there is no guarantee that our insurer will cover costs or that we will be able to obtain the desired level of coverage on acceptable terms in the future. Some of the policies we currently maintain include general liability, crime insurance, products liability, workers’ compensation, cyber, directors’ and officers’, employment practices and fiduciary liability insurance. We do not know, however, if we will be able to maintain insurance with adequate levels of coverage. Changes in the market conditions and our business operations may necessitate the addition of new insurance policies or change of our existing insurance policies. Any significant uninsured liability may require us to pay substantial amounts, which would adversely affect our financial position and results of operations.

We also expect that operating as a U.S. public company will make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage. As a result, it may be more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified people to serve on our board of directors, on our board committees or as executive officers. We do not know, however, if we will be able to maintain existing insurance with adequate levels of coverage. Any significant uninsured liability may require us to pay substantial amounts, which would negatively affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We could be subject to securities class action litigation or other litigation that could divert management’s attention and harm our business, and insurance coverage may not be sufficient to cover all costs and damages.

In the past, securities class action litigation has often been instituted against companies following periods of volatility in the trading price of a company’s securities. This type of litigation, if instituted, could result in substantial costs and a diversion of management’s attention and resources, which would harm our business, operating results or financial condition. Additionally, the dramatic increase in the cost of directors’ and officers’ liability insurance may cause us to opt for lower overall policy limits or to forgo insurance that we may otherwise rely on to cover significant defense costs, settlements and damages awarded to plaintiffs.

From time to time we may also be subject to litigation claims through the ordinary course of our business operations regarding, but not limited to, securities litigation, employment matters, security of patient and employee personal data, contractual relations with collaborators and licensors and intellectual property rights. We may be exposed to such litigation or investigation even if no wrongdoing occurred. Litigation and investigations are usually expensive and divert management’s attention and resources, which could adversely affect our business and cash resources.

We could be subject to changes in tax rates, the adoption of new tax legislation or could otherwise have exposure to additional tax liabilities, which could harm our business.

As discussed above, changes to tax laws or regulations, or to the interpretation of such laws or regulations, in the jurisdictions in which we operate could significantly increase our effective tax rate and materially affect our financial condition. In addition, other factors or events, including business combinations and investments, changes in our stock-based compensation, changes in the valuation of our deferred tax assets and liabilities, adjustments to our taxes upon finalization of any of our various tax returns or as a result of deficiencies asserted by taxing authorities against us, increases in any of our expenses that are not deductible for tax purposes, changes in our available tax credits, and changes in the apportionment of our income and our activities among tax jurisdictions, could also increase our effective tax rate. Our tax filings are subject to review or audit by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (the “IRS”), and state, local and foreign taxing authorities. We may also be liable for taxes in connection with businesses we acquire. Our determinations in respect of our tax liabilities are not binding on the IRS or any other taxing authorities, and accordingly the final determination in an audit or other proceeding may be materially different than the treatment reflected in our tax provisions, accruals and returns. An assessment of additional taxes because of an audit or other proceeding could harm our business.

Our ability to use certain net operating loss (“NOL”) carryforwards and certain other tax attributes may be limited.

As of December 31, 2025, we had federal NOL carryforwards of approximately $96.1 million. Federal NOL carryforwards generated in taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017, may be carried forward indefinitely but are permitted to be used in any taxable year to offset only up to 80% of taxable income in such taxable year, if any. It is uncertain if and to what extent various states will conform to federal law.

Under Sections 382 and 383 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the “Code”) if a corporation undergoes an “ownership change,” the corporation’s ability to use its pre-change NOL carryforwards and other pre-change tax attributes to offset its post-change income and taxes may be limited. Similar rules may apply under state tax laws. In general, an “ownership change” occurs if there is a cumulative change in ownership of the corporation by “5% shareholders” that exceeds 50 percentage points over a rolling three-year period. We have completed an analysis of Section 382 ownership changes in our stock through December 31, 2024 and have concluded that, as of December 31, 2024, we have experienced ownership changes that will result in limitations in our ability to use certain of our NOL carryforwards and other tax attributes. We may also experience an ownership change upon future issuances of our stock or due to secondary trading of our stock which may be outside of our control. If we were to undergo an additional ownership change in the future, further limitations could be imposed on our ability to utilize our NOL carryforwards and other tax attributes. Any of these ownership changes and their resulting limitations on our ability to use NOL carryforwards and other tax attributes could adversely impact our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows.

CAUTIONARY NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This prospectus, including the sections entitled “Prospectus Summary,” “Risk Factors,” “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and “Business,” contains forward-looking statements about us and our industry that involve substantial risks and uncertainties. All statements other than statements of historical facts contained in this prospectus, including statements regarding our future results of operations and financial position and financial condition, business strategy and plans, expected market growth, our plans and objectives for future operations and commercialization, prospective products, product approvals, research and development costs, future revenue, timing and likelihood of success, and future results of anticipated products and prospects, are forward-looking statements. These statements involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other important factors that may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from any future results, performance or achievements expressed or implied by the forward-looking statements.

The words “believe,” “may,” “will,” “estimate,” “continue,” “anticipate,” “intend,” “expect,” “should,” “could,” “target,” “predict,” “seek,” “consider,” “contemplate,” “plan,” “potential,” “project,” “would,” or the negative of these words or other similar expressions are intended to identify forward-looking statements, although not all forward-looking statements contain these words. Forward-looking statements in this prospectus include, but are not limited to, statements about:

We have based these forward-looking statements largely on our current expectations and projections about our business, the industry in which we operate, future events and financial trends that we believe may affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. These forward-looking statements are not guarantees of future performance or development. These forward-looking statements are subject to a number of risks, uncertainties and assumptions, including those described in “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus. Moreover, we operate in a very competitive and rapidly changing environment and new risks emerge from time to time. It is not possible for our management to predict all risks, nor can we assess the impact of all factors on our business or the extent to which any factor, or combination of factors, may cause actual results to differ materially from those contained in any forward-looking statements we may make. In light of these risks, uncertainties and assumptions, the forward-looking events and circumstances discussed in this prospectus may not occur and actual results could differ materially and adversely from those anticipated or implied in the forward-looking statements.

The forward-looking statements included in this prospectus are made only as of the date of this prospectus. You should not rely upon forward-looking statements as predictions of future events. Although we believe that the expectations reflected in the forward-looking statements are reasonable, we cannot guarantee that the future results, levels of activity, performance or events and circumstances reflected in the forward-looking statements will be achieved or occur. Moreover, neither we nor any other person assumes responsibility for the accuracy and completeness of the forward-looking statements. We undertake no obligation to update publicly any forward-looking statements for any reason after the date of this prospectus to conform these statements to actual results or to changes in our expectations.

In addition, statements that “we believe” and similar expressions reflect our beliefs and opinions on the relevant subject. These statements are based upon information available to us as of the date of this prospectus and, while we believe such information forms a reasonable basis for such statements, such information may be limited or incomplete.

You should read this prospectus with the understanding that our actual future results, levels of activity, performance and events and circumstances may be materially different from what we expect.

MARKET AND INDUSTRY DATA

The market data and certain other statistical information used throughout this prospectus, including potential market opportunities, are based on our management’s estimates and research, independent industry publications, government publications, industry reports and other published sources. This information involves a number of assumptions and limitations, and you are cautioned not to give undue weight to such estimates and information. We have not separately verified such data. Further, while we believe that our internal information is reliable, such information has not been verified by any third party. The industry in which we operate is subject to a high degree of uncertainty and risk due to a variety of factors, including those described in the section titled “Risk Factors.” These and other factors could cause actual results to differ materially from the estimates and information contained in this prospectus concerning our industry, including the size of the markets in which we participate. You are cautioned not to give undue weight to any such estimates and information.

USE OF PROCEEDS

We estimate that the net proceeds from this offering will be approximately $ , or approximately $ if the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares in full, assuming an initial public offering price of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

Each $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease, as applicable, the net proceeds to us from this offering by approximately $ , assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Similarly, each increase or decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease, as applicable, the net proceeds to us from this offering by approximately $ , assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price per share, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

We intend to use the net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, cash equivalents, and marketable securities, as follows:

Based upon our current operating plan, we believe that the anticipated net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, cash equivalents, and marketable securities will be sufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through .

Our expected use of net proceeds from this offering represents our current intentions based upon our present plans and business condition. We cannot predict with complete certainty all of the particular uses for the net proceeds to be received upon the completion of this offering or the actual amounts that we will spend on the uses set forth above.

Our management will have broad discretion in the application of the net proceeds from this offering, and investors will be relying on the judgment of our management regarding the application of those net proceeds. The timing and amount of our actual expenditures will be based on many factors, including cash flows from operations and the anticipated growth of our business, and we may find it necessary or advisable to use the net proceeds for other purposes.

Pending the uses described above, we plan to invest the net proceeds from this offering in a variety of capital preservation investments, including short-term, interest-bearing obligations, investment-grade instruments, certificates of deposit, or direct or guaranteed obligations of the United States government.

DIVIDEND POLICY

We have never declared or paid any dividends on our capital stock. We intend to retain future earnings, if any, to finance the operation and expansion of our business and do not anticipate paying any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Any future determination related to our dividend policy will be made at the discretion of our board of directors after considering our financial condition, results of operations, capital requirements, business prospects, and other factors our board of directors deems relevant, and subject to the restrictions contained in any future financing instruments. Our ability to pay cash dividends on our capital stock in the future may also be limited by the terms of any preferred securities we may issue or agreements governing any indebtedness we may incur.

CAPITALIZATION

The following table sets forth our cash and capitalization as of June 30, 2026:

The pro forma and pro forma as adjusted information below is illustrative only and our capitalization following the completion of this offering will change based on the initial public offering price and other terms of this offering determined at pricing. You should read the information in this table together with the financial statements and related notes as appearing at the end of this prospectus and the information set forth under the sections titled “Summary Financial Data” and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

If the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares in full, our pro forma as adjusted cash and cash equivalents, additional paid-in capital, total stockholders’ (deficit) equity and total capitalization as of June 30, 2026 would be $ million, $ million, $ million and $ million, respectively.

The information in the table above excludes:

DILUTION

If you invest in our common stock in this offering, your ownership interest will be diluted immediately to the extent of the difference between the initial public offering price per share of our common stock and the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of our common stock after this offering.

Our historical net tangible book value (deficit) as of June 30, 2026 was $(123.1) million, or $(23.25) per share of common stock. Our historical net tangible book value (deficit) is the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities and the carrying value of our redeemable convertible preferred stock, which is not included within stockholders’ deficit. Historical net tangible book value (deficit) per share represents historical net tangible book value (deficit) divided by the 5,295,562 shares of common stock outstanding as of June 30, 2026.

Our pro forma net tangible book value as of June 30, 2026 was $85.7 million, or $1.16 per share of common stock. Pro forma net tangible book value represents the amount of our total tangible assets less our liabilities, after giving effect to (i) the Preferred Stock Conversion and the related reclassification of the carrying value of the redeemable convertible preferred stock to permanent equity immediately prior to and in connection with the completion of this offering and (ii) the filing and effectiveness of our Restated Charter in connection with the completion of this offering.

After giving further effect to our issuance and sale of shares of common stock in this offering at an assumed initial public offering price of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value as of June 30, 2026 would have been $ million, or $ per share. This represents an immediate increase in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value of $ per share to existing stockholders and an immediate dilution of $ in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering. Dilution per share to new investors is determined by subtracting pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering from the assumed initial public offering price per share paid by new investors. The following table illustrates this dilution on a per share basis:

The dilution information discussed above is illustrative only and will change based on the actual initial public offering price and other terms of this offering determined at pricing. Each $1.00 increase in the assumed initial price to the public of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value by approximately $ million, or approximately $ per share, and increase the dilution per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering by approximately $ per share, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Similarly, each $1.00 decrease in the assumed initial price to the public of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would decrease the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value by approximately $ million, or approximately $ per share, and decrease the dilution per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering by approximately $ per share, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Each increase of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value by approximately $ , or approximately $ per share, and the dilution per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering would be approximately $ per share, assuming that the assumed initial price to the public remains the same, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Similarly, each decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would decrease the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value by approximately $ , or approximately $ per share, and the dilution per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering would be approximately $ per share, assuming that the assumed initial price to the public remains the same, and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

If the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares in full, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after the offering would be approximately $ , representing an immediate increase in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of approximately $ to existing stockholders and immediate dilution in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of approximately $ to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering, assuming an initial public offering price of approximately $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

The following table summarizes, as of June 30, 2026, on the pro forma as adjusted basis described above, the total number of shares of common stock purchased from us, the total consideration and the weighted-average price per share (1) paid by existing stockholders and (2) to be paid by new investors purchasing common stock in this offering at the assumed initial public offering price of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, before deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. As the table shows, new investors purchasing common stock in this offering will pay an average price per share substantially higher than our existing stockholders paid.

The table above assumes no exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares from us. If the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares in full, the number of shares of common stock held by existing stockholders would be reduced to % of the total number of shares of common stock to be outstanding upon completion of this offering, and the number of shares of common stock held by new investors purchasing common stock in this offering will be increased to % of the total number of shares of our common stock to be outstanding upon completion of the offering.

Each $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $ per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease, as applicable, the total consideration paid by new investors by approximately $ million, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same. We may also increase or decrease the number of shares we are offering. Similarly, each increase or decrease of 1,000,000 in the number of shares offered by us would increase or decrease, as applicable, total consideration paid by new investors by approximately $ million, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price.

Except as otherwise indicated, the above discussion and tables assume no exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares and excludes:

To the extent that stock options are exercised, new stock options are issued under our equity incentive plans or we issue additional shares of common stock, other equity securities or convertible debt securities in the future, there will be further dilution to investors participating in this offering. In addition, we may choose to raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities due to market conditions or strategic considerations, even if we believe we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans. If we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, the issuance of these securities could result in further dilution to our stockholders.

MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with the section titled “Prospectus Summary—Summary Financial Data” and our audited financial statements and unaudited interim condensed financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus. This discussion and other parts of this prospectus contain forward-looking statements based upon current beliefs, plans, and expectations related to future events and our future financial performance that involve risks, uncertainties and assumptions, such as statements of our plans, objectives, expectations, intentions, forecasts and projections. Our actual results and the timing of selected events could differ materially from those discussed in these forward-looking statements as a result of several factors including, but not limited to, those set forth under the section titled “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus. Our historical results are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for any period in the future, and you should carefully read the section titled “Risk Factors” to gain an understanding of the important factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from our forward-looking statements. Please also see the section titled “Cautionary Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements.”

Overview

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company focused on tissue Treg biology for the discovery and development of immunoregulatory medicines designed to restore immune balance and promote tissue repair to address unmet needs of patients with autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. TRexBio was built on a pivotal scientific insight: that regulatory T cells (“Tregs”) in human tissue are not merely passive suppressors of inflammation, but active orchestrators of tissue immune homeostasis and repair. Leveraging our Deep Biology drug discovery and design platform, we integrate tissue-level insights into human biology and Treg function to identify and characterize novel targets and approaches for therapeutic intervention. Our tissue-first conviction and unique insights in Treg biology are the foundation of our pipeline of therapeutic candidates aimed at restoring immune balance and promoting tissue repair for more durable disease control.

Our pipeline is focused on augmenting tissue Tregs to address critical treatment gaps in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Our most advanced wholly-owned product candidate, TRB-061, is an investigational tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (“TNFR2”) agonist designed to expand and activate Tregs in inflamed tissues. We believe TRB-061 has broad, multi-indication potential, and are currently conducting a Phase 1a/b clinical trial of TRB-061 in healthy volunteers and patients with moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis (“AD”). We expect to announce topline data from the Phase 1b portion of the TRB-061 trial in patients with moderate-to-severe AD in mid-2027. Our second wholly-owned product candidate, TRB-071, is an investigational TNF receptor superfamily member 8, better known as TNFRSF8 (or “CD30”) agonist designed to both augment tissue Tregs and block immune system inflammatory signaling axes. Genetic studies support the involvement of CD30 and its ligand in inflammatory bowel disease (“IBD”). TRB-071 is currently in IND-enabling studies and, subject to regulatory allowance to proceed, is expected to enter a Phase 1 trial in the first half of 2027. We believe TRB-071 has the potential to address the significant unmet need in IBD by directly targeting the immune system dysfunction in the gut barrier that drives disease pathology.

We believe each of our two lead product candidates has the potential to treat a range of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases with high unmet need, including AD, alopecia areata (“AA”) and IBD. Beyond our lead product candidates, we are advancing multiple preclinical-stage programs focused on differentiated aspects of Treg biology with the goal of transforming the lives of patients affected by autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. We believe our Deep Biology platform, built on a proprietary database of healthy and diseased tissue samples, is key to achieving this goal. Our platform is designed to decode Treg functionality in human tissue, mapping key drivers of immune dysregulation and uncovering novel targets and insights that inform our drug discovery and translational efforts.

Our Deep Biology platform is designed not only to advance current programs but also to generate a continuous pipeline of future therapeutic opportunities. Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases are biologically complex and heterogeneous, with distinct mechanisms driving disease initiation, progression, and response to therapy across tissues and patient populations. Through the analysis of human tissues across multiple diseases, our platform is designed to identify targets associated with tissue Treg biology, immune regulation, and tissue repair, enabling us to prioritize and position therapeutic programs where we believe the underlying biology is most likely to provide meaningful clinical benefit. In addition, insights from our platform support our therapeutic design and candidate selection, indication prioritization, and translational strategies. The advancement of TRB-061, TRB-071, and TRB-051 into development demonstrates the platform’s potential to identify differentiated targets and generate novel immunoregulatory therapeutic candidates, supporting our continued efforts to expand our pipeline across a broad range of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

On December 31, 2024, TRex Holdings Inc. merged with and into TRex Bio, Inc., its wholly-owned Delaware subsidiary, with TRex Bio, Inc. continuing as the surviving corporation; in connection with the merger, all outstanding shares of capital stock and options of TRex Holdings Inc. were converted on a one-for-one basis into corresponding shares of capital stock and options of TRex Bio, Inc.

Since inception, our operations have focused on research and development activities with respect to our product candidates as described above, as well as raising capital, business planning, organizing and staffing our company, establishing our intellectual property portfolio, establishing arrangements with third parties for the manufacture of our product candidates and related raw materials, and providing general and administrative support for these operations. Through June 30, 2026, we have financed our operations primarily with the proceeds from the issuance of shares of our redeemable convertible preferred stock and from payments received under our strategic license and collaboration agreements with Lilly and JJDC. From inception through June 30, 2026, we have raised aggregate gross proceeds of approximately $220.0 million through the sale and issuance of our common stock and redeemable convertible preferred stock and $91.0 million through our collaboration agreements.

To date, we have no product candidates approved for commercial sale in any country and have not generated any revenue from product sales. We have incurred significant operating losses and negative cash flows since inception. Our ability to generate product revenue sufficient to achieve profitability will depend heavily on the successful development and eventual commercialization of one or more of our product candidates. Our net losses for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2025 were $3.1 million and $34.8 million, respectively. For the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2026, our net losses were $17.7 million and $29.3 million, respectively. As of June 30, 2026, we had an accumulated deficit of $123.6 million. We expect to continue to incur significant and increasing losses for the foreseeable future. We expect that our expenses and capital requirements will increase substantially in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly if and as we:

We will not generate revenue from product sales unless and until we successfully complete clinical development and obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate, and we cannot assure you that we will ever generate significant revenue or profits. In addition, if we obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate and do not enter into a third-party commercialization partnership, we expect to incur significant expenses related to developing our commercialization capability to support product sales, marketing, manufacturing and distribution activities. Our net losses may fluctuate significantly from period to period, depending on the timing of our planned clinical studies and expenditures related to our research and development activities.

Furthermore, following the closing of this offering, we expect to incur additional costs associated with operating as a public company, including significant audit, legal, regulatory and tax-related expenses, as well as director and officer insurance premiums and investor relations costs that we did not incur as a private company. As a result, we will need substantial additional funding to support our continuing operations and pursue our growth strategy as a public company. Until such time as we can generate significant revenue from product sales, if ever, we expect to finance our operations through a combination of public or private equity financings, debt financings, or other capital sources, which could include collaborations with other companies, or other strategic transactions and licensing agreements. We may be unable to obtain financing on acceptable terms, or at all, and we may be unable to enter into collaborations or other arrangements. Our failure to raise capital or enter into such agreements as, and when, needed, could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, and financial condition, including requiring us to have to delay, reduce or eliminate product development or future commercialization efforts, or grant rights to develop and market potential future product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

As there are numerous risks and uncertainties associated with development of treatments for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, we are unable to predict the timing or amount of increased expenses, or when or if we will be able to achieve or maintain profitability. Even if we are able to generate product sales, we may not become profitable. We will need to generate significant revenue to achieve profitability, and we may never do so. If we fail to become profitable or are unable to sustain profitability on a continuing basis, then we may be unable to continue our operations at planned levels and be forced to reduce or terminate our operations.

As of June 30, 2026, we had $90.9 million in cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities. We believe that our existing cash as of June 30, 2026, together with the anticipated net proceeds from this offering will be sufficient to fund our operations and capital expenditure requirements through . We have based this estimate on our current assumptions, which may prove to be wrong, and we may exhaust our available capital resources sooner than we expect. See section titled “—Liquidity and Capital Resources.”

Collaboration Agreements

Eli Lilly Research Collaboration and License Agreement

In January 2023, we entered into a Research Collaboration and License Agreement (the “Lilly Collaboration Agreement”) with Eli Lilly and Company (“Lilly”), wherein we granted to Lilly exclusive worldwide rights to develop and commercialize certain program molecules and products. Lilly paid us a one-time $55.0 million upfront payment during the year ended December 31, 2023. In July 2024, Lilly also paid us a $15.0 million development milestone payment. The research term for the Lilly Collaboration Agreement expired during the year ended December 31, 2024; however, our right to receive potential future milestone and royalty payments survives the expiration of the research term and remains in effect, unless earlier terminated in accordance with its terms.

After giving effect to the $15.0 million development milestone payment received in July 2024, we are eligible to receive up to an additional $577.5 million in development, commercialization and sales milestone payments under the Lilly Collaboration Agreement. We are also eligible for tiered royalties ranging from six to ten percent on annual aggregate net sales of licensed products, subject to specified adjustments under the Lilly Collaboration Agreement. These payments will be included in the transaction price when it becomes probable that a significant reversal of cumulative revenue recognized will not occur and will be recognized as revenue based on our progress toward satisfaction of the combined performance obligation. See the section titled “Business—Intellectual Property—License and Collaboration Agreements—Our Research Collaboration and License Agreement with Lilly.”

Components of Results of Operations

Revenue

We have not generated any revenue from product sales and do not expect to do so in the foreseeable future. Our ability to generate product revenue, if ever, will depend on the successful development, regulatory approval and commercialization of one or more product candidates by us. If we fail to complete the development of any future product candidates in a timely manner or to obtain regulatory approval for such product candidates, our ability to generate future revenue and our results of operations and financial position would be materially adversely affected.

During the periods presented, our revenue, when recognized, was derived solely from the Lilly Collaboration Agreement described above. Revenue under the Lilly Collaboration Agreement relates to research and development activities under the applicable research plan and the transfer of related license rights and know-how. The research and development services, related license rights and know-how under the Lilly Collaboration Agreement were accounted for as a single combined performance obligation. The timing and amount of collaboration revenue may vary significantly from period to period based on our progress toward satisfaction of the combined performance obligation and the achievement of development, regulatory,

commercialization and sales milestones by Lilly. We did not recognize collaboration revenue during the year ended December 31, 2025, or the six months ended June 30, 2026, and we may not recognize additional revenue under the Lilly Collaboration Agreement unless and until additional milestone or royalty consideration qualifies for recognition in a future period.

Operating Expenses

Our operating expenses consist of (i) research and development expenses and (ii) general and administrative expenses.

Research and Development

Research and development expenses account for the largest component of our total operating expenses. Research and development expenses consist primarily of direct and unallocated costs incurred for the research and development of our product candidates.

Research and development expenses are recorded as expense in the period in which the related activities occurred, and payments we make prior to the receipt of goods or services to be used in research and development efforts are deferred as prepaid expenses until the goods or services are received and used. We accrue expenses for contract research and development as the related services are performed by monitoring the status of specified activities and billings received from our external service providers. These expenses are accrued based on estimates and are adjusted as actual expenses become known.

A significant portion of our research and development costs have been external costs, which we track by product candidate once it has reached a certain stage of development. However, we do not track our unallocated costs on a product candidate specific basis because these costs are deployed across multiple projects and, as such, are not separately classified.

At this time, we cannot reasonably estimate or know the nature, timing, and estimated costs of the efforts that will be necessary to complete the development of, and obtain regulatory approval for, any of our product candidates. We expect that our research and development expenses will increase substantially in absolute dollars for the foreseeable future as we continue to invest in research and development activities related to developing our product candidates, as our product candidates advance into later stages of development, as we begin to conduct clinical trials, as we seek regulatory approvals for any product candidates that successfully complete clinical trials, and as we incur expenses associated with hiring additional personnel to support our research and development efforts. The process of conducting the necessary clinical research to obtain regulatory approval is costly and time-consuming, and the successful development of our product candidates is highly uncertain.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of personnel-related costs, costs related to maintenance and filing of intellectual property, legal fees related to corporate matters, professional fees paid for accounting, auditing, consulting, tax services, insurance costs, general corporate expenses, and facility-related costs not otherwise included in research and development expenses. Personnel-related costs include salaries, bonuses, benefits, and stock-based compensation expense for our personnel in executive, finance and accounting, human resources, and other administrative functions.

We expect that our general and administrative expenses will increase substantially in absolute dollars for the foreseeable future as we continue to increase our headcount to support our business growth. We have incurred, and expect to continue to incur, significant costs in connection with preparing to operate as a public company. Following the completion of this offering, we expect to incur additional significant expenses associated with operating as a public company, including expenses related to compliance with the rules and regulations of the SEC and expenses related to audit, legal, regulatory services associated with maintaining compliance with exchange listing and SEC requirements, director and officer insurance premiums and investor relations costs.

Other Income, Net

Other income primarily consists of interest earned on our cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities during the period.

Provision for Income Taxes

We are subject to United States federal and state corporate income taxation. As of December 31, 2025, we had federal net operating loss (“NOL“) carryforwards of $96.1 million. Federal NOL carryforwards generated in taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017, may be carried forward indefinitely but are permitted to be used in any taxable year to offset only up to 80% of taxable income in such taxable year, if any. As of December 31, 2025, the Company has no state net operating loss carryforwards.

Additionally, we had federal and state research and development tax credits carryforwards of $4.4 million and $3.9 million, respectively, as of December 31, 2025. The federal research and development tax credits will begin to expire in 2041 if not utilized. The state research and development tax credits have no expiration date.

Under Section 382 and Section 383 of the Code, if a corporation undergoes an “ownership change,” the corporation’s ability to use its pre-change NOL carryforwards and other pre-change tax attributes (including research and development tax credits) to offset its post-change income and taxes may be limited. Similar rules may apply under state tax laws. In general, an “ownership change” occurs if there is a cumulative change in ownership of the corporation by “5% shareholders” that exceeds 50 percentage points over a rolling three-year period. The Company has completed a Section 382 analysis through December 31, 2024 and has concluded that, as of December 31, 2024, ownership changes have occurred that will result in limitations on the use of certain NOL carryforwards and other tax attributes. If we were to undergo an additional ownership change in the future, further limitations could be imposed on our ability to utilize our NOL carryforwards and other tax attributes. We establish a valuation allowance against all of our net deferred tax assets. We consider all available evidence, both positive and negative, including but not limited to our historical operating results, income or loss in recent periods, cumulative losses in recent years, forecasted earnings, future taxable income, and significant risk and uncertainty related to forecasts, and concluded the deferred tax assets are not more likely than not to be realized.

We record liabilities related to uncertain tax positions in accordance with the guidance that clarifies the accounting for uncertainty in income taxes recognized in an enterprise’s financial statements by prescribing a minimum recognition threshold and measurement attribute for purposes of financial statement recognition and measurement of a tax position taken or expected to be taken in a tax return. As of December 31, 2024 and 2025, we had unrecognized tax benefits of $1.9 million and $12.0 million, respectively, of which $1.1 million would affect our income tax expense if recognized, before consideration of our valuation allowance.

Results of Operations

Comparison for the Six Months Ended June 30, 2025 and 2026

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2026 (in thousands):

Operating Expenses (Income)

Research and Development Expenses

The following table summarizes our research and development expenses for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2026 (in thousands):

Research and development expense was $15.0 million and $26.0 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2026, respectively. The increase was primarily attributable to (i) a $3.9 million increase in costs associated with TRB-061, resulting from higher clinical trial costs, (ii) a $5.7 million increase in costs associated with other product candidates, resulting from increased preclinical development and chemistry, manufacturing and controls work, (iii) a $0.9 million increase in employee-related costs resulting from increased headcount, and (iv) a $0.5 million increase in other research and development costs.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expenses were $4.3 million and $5.0 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2026, respectively. The increase was primarily due to (i) $0.4 million of higher professional fees and outside services, driven primarily by costs associated with patent prosecution and the expansion of our intellectual property portfolio, and (ii) $0.3 million of higher employee-related costs, driven primarily by increased headcount.

Other Income, Net

Interest income was $1.6 million and $1.8 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2026, respectively. The increase was due to higher average balances of our cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities.

Comparison for the Years Ended December 31, 2024 and 2025

Our results of operations for each of the periods indicated are summarized in the table below (in thousands):