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UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

______________________________

FORM 10-Q

______________________________

(Mark One)

x	QUARTERLY REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the quarterly period ended June 30, 2025

☐	TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the transition period from to

Commission File Number: 001-37879

______________________________

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

______________________________

Nevada	27-1887399
(State or other jurisdiction of<br>incorporation or organization)	(I.R.S. Employer<br>Identification No.)

42 N. Chestnut Street

Ventura, California 93001

(Address of principal executive offices, including zip code)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (805) 585-3434

N/A

(Former name, former address and former fiscal year, if changed since last report)

______________________________

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Title of each class	Trading Symbol	Name of each exchange on which registered
Class A Common Stock, par value $0.000001 per share	TTD	The Nasdaq Stock Market LLC

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes x No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files). Yes x No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

Large accelerated filer	x	Accelerated filer	☐
Non-accelerated filer	☐	Smaller reporting company	☐
		Emerging growth company	☐

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes ☐ No x

As of July 31, 2025, the registrant had 445,666,933 shares of Class A common stock and 43,275,936 shares of Class B common stock outstanding.

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THE TRADE DESK, INC.

QUARTERLY REPORT ON FORM 10-Q

INDEX

		Page
Part I.	FINANCIAL INFORMATION	3
Item 1.	Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements (Unaudited)	3
	Condensed Consolidated Balance Sheets as ofJune 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024	3
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Operations for the Threeand SixMonths EndedJune 30, 2025 and 2024	4
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity for the Threeand SixMonths EndedJune 30, 2025 and 2024	5
	Condensed Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows for theSixMonths EndedJune30, 2025 and 2024	6
	Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements	7
Item 2.	Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations	17
Item 3.	Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk	26
Item 4.	Controls and Procedures	26
Part II.	OTHER INFORMATION	28
Item 1.	Legal Proceedings	28
Item 1A.	Risk Factors	30
Item 2.	Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds	56
Item 5.	Other Information	56
Item 6.	Exhibits	57
Signatures		58

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PART I. FINANCIAL INFORMATION

Item 1. Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEETS

(In thousands, except par values)

(Unaudited)

	As of<br><br>June 30,<br>2025		As of<br><br>December 31,<br>2024
ASSETS
Current assets:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	896,387	$	1,369,463
Short-term investments, net	790,874		552,026
Accounts receivable, net of allowance for credit losses of $12,338 and $11,244 as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively	3,254,908		3,330,343
Prepaid expenses and other current assets	111,546		84,626
TOTAL CURRENT ASSETS	5,053,715		5,336,458
Property and equipment, net	309,975		209,332
Operating lease assets	269,309		263,761
Deferred income taxes	228,948		230,214
Other assets, non-current	95,862		72,186
TOTAL ASSETS	$	5,957,809	$	6,111,951
LIABILITIES AND STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY
LIABILITIES
Current liabilities:
Accounts payable	$	2,724,093	$	2,631,213
Accrued expenses and other current liabilities	152,477		177,760
Operating lease liabilities	72,414		64,492
TOTAL CURRENT LIABILITIES	2,948,984		2,873,465
Operating lease liabilities, non-current	271,135		247,723
Other liabilities, non-current	41,857		41,618
TOTAL LIABILITIES	3,261,976		3,162,806
Commitments and contingencies (Note 11)
STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY
Preferred stock, par value $0.000001; 100,000 shares authorized, zero shares issued and outstanding as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024	—		—
Common stock, par value $0.000001<br><br>Class A, 1,000,000 shares authorized; 446,622 and 452,182 shares issued and outstanding as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively<br><br>Class B, 95,000 shares authorized; 43,276 and 43,919 shares issued and outstanding as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively	—		—
Additional paid-in capital	2,858,189		2,594,896
Retained earnings (accumulated deficit)	(162,356)		354,249
TOTAL STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY	2,695,833		2,949,145
TOTAL LIABILITIES AND STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY	$	5,957,809	$	6,111,951

The accompanying Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements are an integral part of these statements.

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THE TRADE DESK, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF OPERATIONS

(In thousands, except per share amounts)

(Unaudited)

	Three Months Ended<br>June 30,				Six Months Ended<br>June 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Revenue	$	694,039	$	584,550	$	1,310,060	$	1,075,803
Operating expenses:
Platform operations	150,980		110,459		293,819		214,089
Sales and marketing	161,131		133,867		313,874		255,592
Technology and development	134,251		110,035		266,653		217,721
General and administrative	130,900		135,469		264,485		265,024
Total operating expenses	577,262		489,830		1,138,831		952,426
Income from operations	116,777		94,720		171,229		123,377
Other expense (income):
Interest income, net	(18,035)		(17,817)		(38,167)		(34,478)
Foreign currency exchange loss (gain), net	1,611		45		426		(670)
Total other income, net	(16,424)		(17,772)		(37,741)		(35,148)
Income before income taxes	133,201		112,492		208,970		158,525
Provision for income taxes	43,072		27,463		68,163		41,836
Net income	$	90,129	$	85,029	$	140,807	$	116,689
Earnings per share:
Basic	$	0.18	$	0.17	$	0.29	$	0.24
Diluted	$	0.18	$	0.17	$	0.28	$	0.23
Weighted-average shares outstanding:
Basic	490,631		489,353		492,767		488,952
Diluted	495,776		500,040		499,340		499,117

The accompanying Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements are an integral part of these statements.

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THE TRADE DESK, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY

(In thousands)

(Unaudited)

	Class A and B<br>Common Stock			Additional <br>Paid-In <br>Capital		Retained<br><br>Earnings (Accumulated Deficit)		Total <br> Stockholders’ <br>Equity
	Shares	Amount
Balance as of December 31, 2023	488,916	$	—	$	1,967,265	$	196,954	$	2,164,219
Exercise of common stock options	719	—		10,804		—		10,804
Issuance of restricted stock, net of forfeitures and shares withheld for taxes	620	—		(26,806)		—		(26,806)
Repurchases of Class A common stock	(1,527)	—		—		(125,370)		(125,370)
Stock-based compensation	—	—		112,048		—		112,048
Net income	—	—		—		31,660		31,660
Balance as of March 31, 2024	488,728	—		2,063,311		103,244		2,166,555
Exercise of common stock options	1,167	—		27,360		—		27,360
Issuance of restricted stock, net of forfeitures and shares withheld for taxes	1,007	—		(31,563)		—		(31,563)
Issuance of common stock under employee stock purchase plan	698	—		30,122		—		30,122
Repurchases of Class A common stock	—	—		—		90		90
Stock-based compensation	—	—		127,813		—		127,813
Net income	—	—		—		85,029		85,029
Balance as of June 30, 2024	491,600	$	—	$	2,217,043	$	188,363	$	2,405,406
Balance as of December 31, 2024	496,101	$	—	$	2,594,896	$	354,249	$	2,949,145
Exercise of common stock options	597	—		6,478		—		6,478
Issuance of restricted stock, net of forfeitures and shares withheld for taxes	782	—		(29,457)		—		(29,457)
Issuance of common stock relating to business acquisition	127	—		10,299		—		10,299
Repurchases of Class A common stock	(6,288)	—		—		(400,409)		(400,409)
Stock-based compensation	—	—		129,950		—		129,950
Net income	—	—		—		50,678		50,678
Balance as of March 31, 2025	491,319	—		2,712,166		4,518		2,716,684
Exercise of common stock options	410	—		8,261		—		8,261
Issuance of restricted stock, net of forfeitures and shares withheld for taxes	1,292	—		(27,591)		—		(27,591)
Issuance of common stock under employee stock purchase plan	625	—		34,531		—		34,531
Repurchases of Class A common stock	(3,748)	—		—		(257,003)		(257,003)
Stock-based compensation	—	—		130,822		—		130,822
Net income	—	—		—		90,129		90,129
Balance as of June 30, 2025	489,898	$	—	$	2,858,189	$	(162,356)	$	2,695,833

The accompanying Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements are an integral part of these statements.

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THE TRADE DESK, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF CASH FLOWS

(In thousands)

(Unaudited)

	Six Months Ended June 30,
	2025		2024
OPERATING ACTIVITIES:
Net income	$	140,807	$	116,689
Adjustments to reconcile net income to net cash provided by operating activities:
Depreciation and amortization	50,689		42,624
Stock-based compensation	257,138		236,960
Noncash lease expense	34,253		26,460
Provision for expected credit losses on accounts receivable	1,177		133
Other	(13,899)		(4,117)
Changes in operating assets and liabilities:
Accounts receivable	80,033		(49,321)
Prepaid expenses and other current and non-current assets	(18,281)		(52,064)
Accounts payable	(19,839)		(13,247)
Accrued expenses and other current and non-current liabilities	(24,081)		(9,989)
Operating lease liabilities	(31,551)		(27,397)
Net cash provided by operating activities	456,446		266,731
INVESTING ACTIVITIES:
Purchases of investments	(577,834)		(317,969)
Maturities of investments	346,120		314,598
Purchases of property and equipment	(104,352)		(29,339)
Capitalized software development costs	(5,739)		(4,424)
Business acquisition	(4,350)		—
Net cash used in investing activities	(346,155)		(37,134)
FINANCING ACTIVITIES:
Repurchases of Class A common stock	(647,093)		(125,280)
Proceeds from exercise of stock options	14,085		38,164
Proceeds from employee stock purchase plan	32,450		30,122
Taxes paid relating to net settlement of restricted stock awards	(57,048)		(58,369)
Proceeds from short-term borrowings	74,239		—
Net cash used in financing activities	(583,367)		(115,363)
Increase (decrease) in cash and cash equivalents	(473,076)		114,234
Cash and cash equivalents—Beginning of period	1,369,463		895,129
Cash and cash equivalents—End of period	$	896,387	$	1,009,363
SUPPLEMENTAL CASH FLOW INFORMATION:
Cash paid for operating lease liabilities	$	35,942	$	33,272
Operating lease assets obtained in exchange for operating lease liabilities	$	41,594	$	58,133
Capitalized assets financed by accounts payable	$	57,562	$	37,927
Repurchases of Class A common stock in accrued expenses and other current liabilities	$	12,218	$	—
Assets acquired in a business combination, included in other assets, non-current, in exchange for Class A common stock	$	10,299	$	—
Tenant improvements paid by lessor	$	8,579	$	—
Stock-based compensation included in capitalized software development costs	$	3,634	$	2,901

The accompanying Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements are an integral part of these statements.

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THE TRADE DESK, INC.

NOTES TO CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

(Unaudited)

Note 1—Nature of Operations

The Trade Desk, Inc. (the “Company”) is a global technology company that empowers buyers of advertising. Through the Company’s self-service, cloud-based platform, ad buyers can create, manage and optimize more expressive data-driven digital advertising campaigns across ad formats and channels, including connected television (“CTV”) and other video, display, audio and native, on a multitude of devices, such as televisions, streaming devices, mobile devices, computers and digital-out-of-home devices. The Company’s platform integrations with major inventory, publisher and data partners provide ad buyers reach and decisioning capabilities, and the Company’s enterprise application programming interfaces (“APIs”) enable its clients to customize and expand platform functionality.

The Company was originally incorporated in November 2009 and is a Nevada corporation. The Company is headquartered in Ventura, California with offices in various cities in North America, Europe, Asia and Australia.

Note 2—Basis of Presentation and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

The accompanying condensed consolidated financial statements were prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“GAAP”) for interim financial information and are unaudited. Certain information and disclosures normally included in consolidated financial statements prepared in accordance with GAAP have been condensed or omitted. The condensed consolidated balance sheet as of December 31, 2024 was derived from audited financial statements but does not include all disclosures required by GAAP. Accordingly, these condensed consolidated financial statements should be read in conjunction with the Company’s audited consolidated financial statements and related notes included in its Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024.

There have been no material changes to the Company’s accounting policies from those disclosed in its Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024, and these unaudited interim condensed consolidated financial statements have been prepared on a basis consistent with that used to prepare the Company’s audited annual consolidated financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2024, and include, in the opinion of management, all adjustments, consisting of normal recurring items, necessary for the fair statement of the condensed consolidated financial statements.

The results of operations for the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 are not necessarily indicative of the results expected for the full year ending December 31, 2025.

Use of Estimates

The preparation of condensed consolidated financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the condensed consolidated financial statements and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ materially from these estimates.

Management regularly evaluates its estimates, primarily those relating to: (1) allowances for credit losses, (2) income taxes, including the realizability of deferred tax assets and the recognition of valuation allowances, (3) assumptions used in the option pricing models to determine the fair value of stock-based compensation, (4) operating lease assets and liabilities, including the Company’s incremental borrowing rate and terms and provisions of each lease, (5) the recognition and disclosure of contingent liabilities, (6) the useful lives of long-lived assets and (7) the fair values and recoverable amounts of long-lived assets and any potential impairments. These estimates are based on historical data and experience, as well as various other factors that management believes to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying value of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources.

As of June 30, 2025, the impacts to the Company’s business due to geopolitical developments and macroeconomic factors such as changes in interest rates, foreign currency exchange rates, trade policies and practices, inflation, supply chain disruptions and economic growth continue to evolve. As a result, many of the Company’s estimates and assumptions, including the allowance for credit losses, consider macroeconomic factors in the market, which require increased judgment and carry a higher degree of variability and volatility. As events continue to evolve and additional information becomes available, the Company’s estimates may change materially in future periods.

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Recent Accounting Pronouncements Not Yet Adopted

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU No. 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures, which requires greater disaggregation of information and consistent categories in the effective tax rate reconciliation and income taxes paid disaggregated by jurisdiction. It also includes certain other amendments to improve the effectiveness of income tax disclosures. This guidance will be effective on a prospective basis, with an option to apply it retrospectively, for annual periods beginning with the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025. Early adoption is permitted. The Company is currently evaluating the impact of the new guidance on its disclosures.

In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU No. 2024-03, Income Statement — Reporting Comprehensive Income — Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses, which requires additional disclosure of specific expense categories included in the expense captions presented on the statements of operations. The new guidance does not change the expense captions on the statements of operations. In January 2025, the FASB issued ASU No. 2025-01, Income Statement — Reporting Comprehensive Income — Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40) which clarified the effective date of ASU No. 2024-03. The guidance will be effective on a prospective basis, with an option to apply it retrospectively, for annual periods beginning with the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2027, and for interim periods beginning with the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the fiscal quarter ended March 31, 2028. Early adoption is permitted. The Company is currently evaluating the impact of the new guidance on its disclosures.

Note 3—Earnings Per Share

The Company has two classes of common stock, Class A and Class B. Basic and diluted earnings per share attributable to common stockholders for Class A and Class B common stock were the same because they were entitled to the same liquidation and dividend rights.

Basic earnings per share is calculated by dividing net income by the weighted-average number of shares of common stock outstanding. Diluted earnings per share is calculated by dividing net income by the weighted-average number of shares of common stock outstanding adjusted for the potentially dilutive impact of stock options, restricted stock and the Employee Stock Purchase Plan (“ESPP”), using the two-class method required for participating securities. Restricted stock awards are considered to be participating securities due to their non-forfeitable dividend rights.

The computation of basic and diluted earnings per share is as follows (in thousands, except per share amounts):

	Three Months Ended<br>June 30,				Six Months Ended<br>June 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Numerator:
Net income	$	90,129	$	85,029	$	140,807	$	116,689
Denominator:
Weighted-average shares outstanding—basic	490,631		489,353		492,767		488,952
Effect of dilutive securities	5,145		10,687		6,573		10,165
Weighted-average shares outstanding—diluted	495,776		500,040		499,340		499,117
Basic earnings per share	$	0.18	$	0.17	$	0.29	$	0.24
Diluted earnings per share	$	0.18	$	0.17	$	0.28	$	0.23
Anti-dilutive equity awards under stock-based award plans excluded from the determination of diluted earnings per share	16,051		2,480		16,051		2,480

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Note 4—Cash, Cash Equivalents and Short-Term Investments, Net

Cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments in marketable securities were as follows (in thousands):

	As of June 30, 2025
	Cash and <br>Cash <br>Equivalents		Short-Term <br>Investments, Net		Total
Cash	$	251,623	$	—	$	251,623
Level 1:
Money market funds	564,322		—		564,322
Level 2:
Commercial paper	60,642		281,837		342,479
Corporate debt securities	—		326,452		326,452
U.S. government and agency securities	19,800		182,585		202,385
Total	$	896,387	$	790,874	$	1,687,261	As of December 31, 2024
---	---	---	---	---	---	---
	Cash and <br>Cash <br>Equivalents		Short-Term <br>Investments, Net		Total
Cash	$	218,448	$	—	$	218,448
Level 1:
Money market funds	1,031,413		—		1,031,413
Level 2:
Commercial paper	101,163		129,879		231,042
Corporate debt securities	3,498		281,775		285,273
U.S. government and agency securities	14,941		140,372		155,313
Total	$	1,369,463	$	552,026	$	1,921,489

The Company’s gross unrealized gains and losses from its short-term investments, recorded at fair value, for the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, were immaterial.

The contractual maturities of the Company’s short-term investments are as follows (in thousands):

	June 30, 2025
Due in one year	$	708,496
Due in one to two years	82,378
Total	$	790,874

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Note 5—Leases

The components of lease expense recorded in the condensed consolidated statements of operations were as follows (in thousands):

	Three Months Ended<br>June 30,				Six Months Ended<br>June 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Operating lease cost	$	18,049	$	13,486	$	35,082	$	26,197
Short-term lease cost	793		414		1,590		888
Variable lease cost	5,569		3,792		10,263		7,608
Sublease income	—		—		—		(42)
Total lease cost	$	24,411	$	17,692	$	46,935	$	34,651

Note 6—Debt

Credit Facility

On June 15, 2021, the Company and a syndicate of banks, led by JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as agent, entered into a Loan and Security Agreement (the “Credit Facility”). The Credit Facility consists of a $450 million revolving loan facility, with a $20 million sublimit for swingline borrowings and a $15 million sublimit for the issuance of letters of credit. Under certain circumstances, the Company has the right to increase the Credit Facility by an amount not to exceed $300 million. The Credit Facility is collateralized by substantially all of the Company’s assets, including a pledge of certain of its accounts receivable, deposit accounts, intellectual property, investment property and equipment.

On December 17, 2021, the Company amended the Credit Facility to expand the process for issuing letters of credit and the related invoicing, particularly with respect to letters of credit not denominated in U.S. Dollars. On February 9, 2023, the Company further amended its Credit Facility (as amended, the “Amended Credit Facility”) to transition from a variable interest rate based on the London Interbank Offered Rate to a variable interest rate based on the secured overnight financing rate (“SOFR”).

Loans under the Amended Credit Facility bear interest at a rate equal to, at the Company’s option, an annual rate of either a Base Rate or an adjusted term SOFR rate (defined as SOFR for a specified term plus a credit spread adjustment of 10 basis points, subject to a 0% floor), plus an applicable margin (“Base Rate Borrowings” and “Term SOFR Borrowings”). The Base Rate is defined as a rate per annum for any day equal to the greatest of (1) the rate of interest last quoted by The Wall Street Journal as the “Prime Rate” in the United States, (2) the New York Federal Reserve Bank Rate in effect on such day plus half of 1%, and (3) the adjusted term SOFR rate for a one-month interest period on such day plus 1%. The applicable margin is between 0.25% to 1.25% for Base Rate Borrowings and between 1.25% and 2.25% for Term SOFR Borrowings based on the Company maintaining certain leverage ratios. The fee for undrawn amounts under the Amended Credit Facility ranges, based on the applicable leverage, from 0.200% to 0.350%. The Company is also required to pay customary letter of credit fees, as necessary.

As of June 30, 2025, the Company did not have an outstanding debt balance under the Amended Credit Facility. Availability under the Amended Credit Facility was $443 million as of June 30, 2025, which is net of outstanding letters of credit of $7 million. The Amended Credit Facility matures, and all outstanding amounts become due and payable, on June 15, 2026.

The Amended Credit Facility contains customary conditions to borrowings, events of default and covenants, including covenants that restrict the Company’s ability to sell assets, make changes to the nature of the Company’s business, engage in mergers or acquisitions, incur, assume or permit to exist additional indebtedness and guarantees, create or permit to exist liens, pay dividends, issue equity instruments, make distributions or redeem or repurchase capital stock or make other investments, engage in transactions with affiliates and make payments in respect of subordinated debt. The Amended Credit Facility also requires the Company to maintain compliance with a maximum ratio of consolidated funded debt to consolidated EBITDA of 3.50 to 1.00. As of June 30, 2025, the Company was in compliance with all covenants.

Other Short-Term Borrowings

On June 30, 2025, the Company had an outstanding balance of $74 million relating to an overdraft of an account pursuant to customary conditions governing its depositary relationship with JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A. This outstanding

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balance is included in accounts payable in the condensed consolidated balance sheets and as proceeds from short-term borrowings in the condensed consolidated statements of cash flows.

Note 7—Capitalization

Share Repurchase Program

In February 2023, the Company’s board of directors approved a share repurchase program to repurchase its Class A common stock. The share repurchase program, which has no expiration date, is designed to help offset the impact of future share dilution from employee stock issuances. Repurchases under the program may be made in the open market, in privately negotiated transactions or otherwise, with the amount and timing of repurchases to be determined at the Company’s discretion, depending on market conditions and corporate needs. Open market repurchases are structured to occur in accordance with applicable federal securities laws, including within the pricing and volume requirements of Rule 10b-18 under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”). The Company may also, from time to time, enter into Rule 10b5-1 plans to facilitate repurchases of its shares under this authorization. This program does not obligate the Company to acquire any particular amount of Class A common stock, and may be modified, suspended or terminated at any time at the discretion of the Company’s board of directors.

As of December 31, 2024, $464 million remained available and authorized for repurchases. At the end of January 2025, an additional $564 million was authorized under this program, bringing the total amount available for future repurchases to $1 billion. During the three months ended June 30, 2025, the Company repurchased and subsequently retired 3.7 million shares of its Class A common stock for an aggregate repurchase amount of $257 million. During the six months ended June 30, 2025, the Company repurchased and subsequently retired 10 million shares of its Class A common stock for an aggregate repurchase amount of $657 million. The repurchase amounts included in the condensed consolidated statements of stockholders’ equity include immaterial amounts relating to the 1% excise tax on share repurchases, net of share issuances, as a result of the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (“IRA”). As of June 30, 2025, $375 million remained available and authorized for repurchases. Activity under the share repurchase program was recognized in the condensed consolidated financial statements on a trade-date basis.

Note 8—Stock-Based Compensation

Stock-Based Compensation Expense

Stock-based compensation expense recorded in the condensed consolidated statements of operations was as follows (in thousands):

	Three Months Ended<br>June 30,				Six Months Ended<br>June 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Platform operations	$	9,083	$	7,272	$	18,300	$	12,827
Sales and marketing	30,368		25,068		59,304		45,360
Technology and development	42,800		32,509		83,781		60,483
General and administrative	46,634		61,491		95,753		118,290
Total	$	128,885	$	126,340	$	257,138	$	236,960

On May 27, 2025, the Company’s stockholders approved the 2025 Incentive Award Plan (the “2025 Plan”), which was previously adopted by the Company’s board of directors and is an amendment and restatement of the 2016 Incentive Award Plan (the “2016 Plan”). The changes from the 2016 Plan to the 2025 Plan include removing the ten-year plan expiration date and providing other minor technical and administrative updates. Existing stock-based awards granted under the 2016 Plan are unaffected by the technical and administrative updates in the 2025 Plan. The “evergreen” provision for

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annual increases in issuable shares will still end on and include January 1, 2026. The Company does not currently expect the new or modified provisions of the 2025 Plan to materially impact its financial statements in the near term.

Stock Options, Excluding the CEO Performance Option

The following summarizes stock option activity:

	Shares<br><br>Under Options<br><br>(in thousands)	Weighted-<br><br>Average<br><br>Exercise Price
Outstanding as of December 31, 2024	9,813	$	43.31
Granted	3,788	53.29
Exercised	(1,007)	14.73
Expired/Forfeited	(403)	75.21
Outstanding as of June 30, 2025	12,191	$	47.72
Exercisable as of June 30, 2025	6,090	$	33.71

Stock-based compensation expense relating to stock options was $18 million and $16 million for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Stock-based compensation expense relating to stock options was $32 million and $28 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. As of June 30, 2025, the Company had unrecognized stock-based compensation relating to stock options of approximately $196 million, which is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of 3.2 years.

CEO Performance Option

In October 2021, the Company granted a market-based performance award to the Company’s Chief Executive Officer (the “CEO Performance Option”) under the 2016 Plan. The CEO Performance Option has an exercise price of $68.29 per share. As of December 31, 2024, the CEO Performance Option had 17.8 million options outstanding. No options were granted, exercised, forfeited or expired during the three and six months ended June 30, 2025. As of June 30, 2025, the CEO Performance Option had 17.8 million options outstanding and 3.4 million exercisable options.

Stock-based compensation of $19 million and $36 million for the CEO Performance Option was recorded as a component of general and administrative expense during the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Stock-based compensation of $43 million and $71 million for the CEO Performance Option was recorded as a component of general and administrative expense during the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. As of June 30, 2025, the Company had unrecognized stock-based compensation relating to the CEO Performance Option of $29 million that is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of 0.6 years, assuming no acceleration of vesting.

Restricted Stock

The following summarizes restricted stock activity:

	Shares<br><br>(in thousands)	Weighted-<br><br>Average<br><br>Grant Date<br><br>Fair Value
Unvested as of December 31, 2024	10,197	$	73.62
Granted	6,076	55.07
Vested	(2,093)	69.33
Forfeited	(584)	72.75
Unvested as of June 30, 2025	13,596	$	66.03

Stock-based compensation expense relating to restricted stock was $81 million and $68 million for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Stock-based compensation expense relating to restricted stock was

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$152 million and $124 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. As of June 30, 2025, the Company had unrecognized stock-based compensation relating to restricted stock of approximately $830 million, which is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of 2.9 years.

Employee Stock Purchase Plan (“ESPP”)

Stock-based compensation expense relating to the ESPP was $11 million and $7 million for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Stock-based compensation expense relating to the ESPP was $30 million and $13 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. As of June 30, 2025, the Company had unrecognized stock-based compensation relating to ESPP awards of approximately $8 million, which is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of 1.0 years.

Note 9—Income Taxes

In determining the interim provision for income taxes for each of the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, the Company utilized the annual estimated effective tax rate applied to the actual year-to-date income and added the tax effects of any discrete items in the reporting period in which they occur.

For the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, the provision for income taxes included benefits associated with stock-based awards of $4 million and $18 million, respectively. For the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, the provision for income taxes included benefits associated with stock-based awards of $14 million and $29 million, respectively.

For the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, the Company’s effective tax rate differed from the United States federal statutory tax rate of 21% primarily due to nondeductible stock-based compensation and state and foreign taxes, partially offset by research and development tax credits and the impact of tax benefits associated with stock-based awards.

There were no material changes to the Company’s unrecognized tax benefits during the six months ended June 30, 2025, and the Company does not expect to have any significant changes to unrecognized tax benefits through the end of the fiscal year.

On July 4, 2025, the United States enacted the One Big Beautiful Bill Act (the “OBBBA”), which changes or makes permanent certain tax laws for corporations, including provisions relating to domestic research and development costs, bonus depreciation and foreign derived intangible income. While the Company is still evaluating the full impact of the OBBBA, the primary impact is the option to immediately deduct domestic research and development costs paid or incurred after December 31, 2024, for income tax purposes. In addition, the OBBBA allows for the accelerated deduction of any remaining unamortized domestic research and development costs over a one-year or two-year period beginning after December 31, 2024, at the Company’s election. The Company will continue to evaluate the impact of the OBBBA on its income taxes through the end of the year.

Note 10—Segment and Geographic Information

The Company’s chief operating decision maker is its Chief Executive Officer (“CEO”), who manages the Company and reviews financial information on a consolidated basis. The Company has one primary business activity, its advertising technology platform, as described in Note 1 – Nature of Operations. Accordingly, the Company operates in one operating segment on a consolidated basis: advertising technology platform. There are no differences in segmentation, the nature of significant expenses or the basis of measurement of segment profit and loss, which is consolidated net income, as compared to the disclosures in the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024.

The CEO is not regularly provided significant expense information at a greater level of disaggregation than those expenses reported on the condensed consolidated statements of operations.

As the Company only has one operating segment, revenue, expenses and net income are disclosed in the condensed consolidated statements of operations, and depreciation and amortization expense is disclosed in the condensed consolidated statements of cash flows. Significant non-cash items and expenditures for long-lived assets are disclosed in the condensed consolidated statements of cash flows and in Note 8 – Stock-Based Compensation. Segment assets are

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reported on the condensed consolidated balance sheets as total assets. The Company does not have intra-entity sales or transfers. The following includes interest expense and interest income (in thousands):

	Three Months Ended<br>June 30,				Six Months Ended<br>June 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Interest expense	$	407	$	380	$	783	$	751
Interest income	(18,442)		(18,197)		(38,950)		(35,229)
Interest income, net	$	(18,035)	$	(17,817)	$	(38,167)	$	(34,478)

Generally, the Company reports revenue net of amounts it pays suppliers for the cost of advertising inventory, supplier-provided components of value-added services and data (collectively, “Supplier Components”). The Company generally bills clients for their spend on advertising inventory they purchase through the platform and platform fees, value-added services and data, net of allowances (“Gross Billings”). The Company’s accounts receivable are recorded at the amount of Gross Billings for the amounts it is responsible to collect, and accounts payable are recorded at the net amount payable to suppliers. Accordingly, both accounts receivable and accounts payable appear large in relation to revenue reported on a net basis.

Gross Billings, based on the address of the clients or client affiliates, set forth as a percentage of total Gross Billings, were as follows:

	Three Months Ended<br>June 30,				Six Months Ended<br>June 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
United States	86	%	87	%	86	%	87	%
International	14	%	13	%	14	%	13	%
Total	100	%	100	%	100	%	100	%

Note 11— Commitments and Contingencies

Guarantees, Indemnification and Other

In the ordinary course of business, the Company may provide indemnifications of varying scope and terms to clients, vendors, lessors, business partners and other parties with respect to certain matters, including, but not limited to, losses arising out of breach of such agreements, services to be provided by the Company or from intellectual property infringement claims made by third parties. In addition, the Company has entered into indemnification agreements with directors and certain officers and employees that will require the Company, among other things, to indemnify them against certain liabilities that may arise by reason of their status or service as directors, officers or employees. In the ordinary course of business, demands have been made upon the Company to provide indemnification under such agreements, but there are no claims of which the Company is aware that could have a material effect on the Company’s condensed consolidated balance sheets, statements of operations or statements of cash flows. Accordingly, no material amounts for have been recorded at June 30, 2025 and 2024.

The Company is under audit by various domestic and foreign tax authorities. The Company believes that the amount of losses or any estimable range of possible losses with respect to these matters will not, either individually or in the aggregate, have a material adverse effect on its business and condensed consolidated financial statements. Due to the inherent complexity and uncertainty of these matters and judicial process in certain jurisdictions, the final outcome may be materially different from the Company’s expectations.

Litigation

From time to time, the Company is subject to various legal proceedings, litigation and claims, either asserted or unasserted, that arise in the ordinary course of business. Although the outcome of the various legal proceedings, litigation and claims cannot be predicted with certainty, management does not believe that any of these proceedings or other claims will have a material adverse effect on the Company’s business, financial condition, results of operations or cash flows. Regardless of the outcome, litigation can have an adverse impact on the Company because of defense and settlement costs, diversion of management resources and other factors.

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Litigation Related to 2021 CEO Performance Option

On May 27, 2022, a stockholder filed a derivative lawsuit captioned Huizenga v. Green, No. 2022-0461, asserting claims on behalf of the Company against certain members of the Company’s board of directors in the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware. On June 27, 2022, a second derivative lawsuit captioned Pfeiffer v. Green, No. 2022-0560, was filed in the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware alleging substantially similar claims. Those lawsuits were consolidated on August 18, 2022, and a lead plaintiff was appointed on October 7, 2022. The two complaints alleged generally that the defendants breached their fiduciary duties to the Company and its stockholders in connection with the negotiation and approval of the CEO Performance Option. The plaintiffs sought a court order rescinding the CEO Performance Option and monetary damages. On November 10, 2022, the plaintiffs filed a consolidated complaint, and on January 12, 2023, the defendants moved to dismiss the consolidated complaint. On February 14, 2025, the court granted the motions to dismiss under Court of Chancery Rule 23.1 in their entirety and with prejudice, finding that the plaintiffs did not allege facts sufficient to infer that at least half of the Company’s board of directors received a material benefit from the CEO Performance Option, lacked independence from Mr. Green, or faced a “substantial likelihood of liability” from having approved the CEO Performance Option. The plaintiffs filed a notice of appeal of the court’s decision. On April 29, 2025, the plaintiffs filed their opening brief. On May 29, 2025, the defendants filed their answering brief. On June 13, 2025, the plaintiffs filed their reply brief. The appeal remains pending.

Litigation Related to Reincorporation

On October 4, 2024, a stockholder filed a class action complaint in the Court of Chancery in the State of Delaware alleging claims for breach of contract against the Company and breach of fiduciary duties against the Company’s directors, in connection with the Company’s reincorporation from Delaware to Nevada. Gunderson v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 2024-1029 (Del. Ch.) (the “Gunderson Action”). On October 24, 2024, the plaintiff filed an amended complaint. The complaint sought, among other things, an order declaring that the Company’s conversion required approval by a supermajority of the Company’s stockholders and an order enjoining the November 14, 2024 stockholder vote on the conversion. On October 28, 2024, the parties completed expedited briefing on cross motions for partial summary judgment regarding the causes of action asserted in the original complaint, and the court heard oral argument on the motions on October 30, 2024. On November 6, 2024, the court granted the defendants’ summary judgment motion and denied the plaintiff’s cross-motion, finding that the conversion did not require supermajority approval of the Company’s stockholders, and that the defendants did not breach their fiduciary duties by disclosing that the conversion required a vote of a simple majority of the Company’s stockholders. The plaintiff chose not to appeal. The case is now proceeding as to the plaintiff’s remaining claims that the Company’s directors breached their fiduciary duties because the reincorporation to Nevada was substantively and procedurally unfair, and that the transaction is not subject to the business judgment rule because it was not subject to approval by a special committee of the board or by a majority of the disinterested stockholders. The defendants have moved to dismiss, but no briefing schedule has been set. On April 28, 2025, the plaintiff in the Scarantino Action (as defined below) moved to intervene and stay the Gunderson Action. On May 20, 2025, the Court granted the motion to intervene and stayed the Gunderson Action pending completion of the books and records inspection in the Scarantino Action.

On November 15, 2024, a different stockholder filed a complaint in the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware requesting production of the Company’s corporate books and records relating to the Nevada conversion, pursuant to 8 Del. C. § 220. City of Roseville Employees Retirement System v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 2024-1173 (Del. Ch.). On November 27, 2024, the parties agreed to stay the proceeding in exchange for the production of certain documents to the plaintiff; the court granted the stay the same day. On April 18, 2025, the stockholder voluntarily dismissed the complaint without prejudice.

On April 24, 2025, a different stockholder filed a complaint in the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware requesting production of the Company’s corporate books and records relating to the Nevada conversion and the Company’s dual class capital structure, among other things, pursuant to 8 Del. C. § 220. Richard Scarantino v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No 2025-0442 (Del. Ch.) (the “Scarantino Action”). A trial was held by the Court of Chancery on July 16, 2025. The parties are awaiting a decision.

Litigation Related to Securities Class Actions

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be brought on behalf of those who purchased or otherwise acquired the Company’s publicly traded securities between May 9, 2024 and February 12, 2025 and seeks unspecified damages and other relief. On March 20, 2025, the court granted the parties’ joint stipulation, ordering that defendants need not respond to the current complaint, pending the appointment of lead plaintiff and lead counsel.

On March 5, 2025, two additional related purported class action lawsuits were filed in the United States District Court, Central District of California, captioned Savorelli v. The Trade Desk, Inc. et al. (No. 2:25-cv-01915), bringing claims against the Company as well as its Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, and New England Teamsters Pension Fund v. The Trade Desk, Inc. et al. (No. 2:25-cv-01936), bringing claims against the Company as well as its Chief Executive Officer, Chief Financial Officer and Chief Strategy Officer. Both complaints allege that the defendants made false and misleading statements, similar to the allegations contained in the United Union of Roofers action, in violation of Sections 10(b) and 20(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, and Rule 10b-5 promulgated thereunder. The actions are also purportedly brought on behalf of those who purchased or otherwise acquired the Company’s publicly traded securities between May 9, 2024 and February 12, 2025 and seek unspecified damages and other relief. On March 18, 2025, the court entered orders relating the Savorelli and New England actions to the first-filed United Union of Roofers action, 2:25-cv-01396 (CAS). On March 28, 2025, the court granted the parties’ joint stipulations in the Savorelli and New England matters, ordering that defendants need not respond to the current complaints, pending the appointment of lead plaintiff and lead counsel.

Shareholder Derivative Actions

On March 6, 2025 and March 14, 2025, plaintiffs Nathan C. Silva and Daniel Jong, respectively, filed purported shareholder derivative complaints in the United States District Court, Central District of California, captioned Silva v. Green et al. (No. 2:25-cv-01975) and Jong v. Green et al. (No. 2:25-cv-02268), against current and former officers and directors of the Company, naming the Company as a nominal defendant. The complaints generally arise out of the same allegations contained in the securities class actions and allege claims for breach of fiduciary duties and related claims. The actions purport to be brought derivatively on behalf of the Company and seek damages and other various forms of relief. On April 9, 2025, the court granted the parties’ stipulations consolidating the shareholder derivative actions and appointing Nathan C. Silva and Daniel Jong as Co-Plaintiffs and the Brown Law Firm, P.C. and Rigrodsky Law, P.A. as Co-Lead Counsel for Plaintiffs. The April 9, 2025 order also provided that defendants need not respond to the current complaints, and that the parties provide a proposed scheduling order regarding the designation or filing of an operative consolidated complaint and defendants’ responses thereto by June 9, 2025.

On April 21, 2025, several purported shareholders filed motions in the related actions seeking to be appointed lead plaintiff and lead counsel. Once lead plaintiff and lead counsel are appointed, parties will confer to set a schedule for the filing of any amended complaint and any responsive briefing. The case is still in its early stages. Management believes these claims to be meritless and intends to vigorously defend against them.

Litigation Related to the Company’s Platform and Related Offerings

On March 28, 2025, two complaints alleging various wiretapping and privacy tort theories were filed against the Company in the United States District Court, Northern District of California, captioned Michie & Dryer v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 3:25-cv-2889 (N.D. Cal.) and Hernandez-Mendoza v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 4:25-cv-02923 (N.D. Cal.). A third complaint advancing similar allegations, captioned Turner v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 3:25-cv-03136 (N.D. Cal.), was originally filed on March 31, 2025 in the United States District Court, Central District of California, but was voluntarily dismissed and refiled on April 7, 2025 in the United States District Court, Northern District of California. The complaints have now been consolidated into a single consolidated amended complaint, filed July 18, 2025, and the case is still in its early stages. Management believes the claims asserted in these complaints to be meritless and intends to vigorously defend against them.

Litigation is inherently uncertain and there can be no assurance regarding the likelihood that the motions to dismiss or defense of the various actions will be successful.

Employment Contracts

The Company has entered into agreements with severance terms with certain employees and officers, all of whom are employed on an at-will basis, subject to certain severance obligations in the event of certain involuntary terminations. The Company may be required to accelerate the vesting of certain stock options and restricted stock in the event of changes in control, as defined, and involuntary terminations.

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Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

This Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”). Forward-looking statements generally relate to future events or our future financial or operating performance and may include statements concerning, among other things, our business strategy (including anticipated trends and developments in, and management plans for, our business and the markets in which we operate), financial results, the impact of macroeconomic uncertainty on our business, operations, and the markets and communities in which we, our clients, and partners operate, results of operations, revenues, operating expenses, income taxes, including the impact of the OBBBA, capital expenditures including share repurchases, sales and marketing initiatives and competition. In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements because they contain words such as “may,” “might,” “will,” “should,” “expects,” “plans,” “anticipates,” “could,” “intends,” “target,” “projects,” “contemplates,” “believes,” “estimates,” “predicts,” “suggests,” “potential” or “continue” or the negative of these words or other similar terms or expressions that concern our expectations, strategy, plans or intentions. These statements are not guarantees of future performance; they reflect our current views with respect to future events and are based on assumptions and are subject to known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors that may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from expectations or results projected or implied by forward-looking statements.

We discuss many of these risks in Part II of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q in greater detail under the heading “Risk Factors” and in other filings we make from time to time with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the “SEC”). Also, these forward-looking statements represent our estimates and assumptions only as of the date of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, which are inherently subject to change and involve risks and uncertainties. Unless required by federal securities laws, we assume no obligation to update any of these forward-looking statements, or to update the reasons actual results could differ materially from those anticipated, to reflect circumstances or events that occur after the statements are made. Given these uncertainties, investors should not place undue reliance on these forward-looking statements.

Investors should read this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q and the documents that we reference in this report and have filed with the SEC, including our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024, completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect. We qualify all of our forward-looking statements by these cautionary statements.

References to “Notes” are notes included in our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements appearing elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q.

Overview

We offer a self-service, cloud-based ad-buying platform that empowers our clients to plan, manage, optimize and measure more expressive data-driven digital advertising campaigns. Our platform allows clients to execute integrated campaigns across ad formats and channels, including CTV and other video, display, audio and native, on a multitude of devices, such as televisions, streaming devices, mobile devices, computers and digital-out-of-home devices. Our platform’s integrations with major inventory, publisher and data partners provide ad buyers reach and decisioning capabilities, and our enterprise APIs enable our clients to customize and expand platform functionality.

Our clients are advertising agencies, advertisers and other service providers for agencies or advertisers, with whom we enter into ongoing MSAs. We generate revenue by charging our clients a platform fee generally based on a percentage of our clients’ total spend on our platform and from providing value-added services and data to support their advertising campaigns.

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Executive Summary

Highlights

	Three Months Ended June 30,							Six Months Ended June 30,
	Dollars				Change			Dollars				Change
	2025		2024			%		2025		2024			%
	(in thousands, except percentages)
Revenue	$	694,039	$	584,550		19	%	$	1,310,060	$	1,075,803		22	%
Net income	$	90,129	$	85,029		6	%	$	140,807	$	116,689		21	%

All values are in US Dollars.

Trends, Opportunities and Challenges

The growing digitization of media and fragmentation of audiences has increased the complexity of advertising and thereby increased the need for automation in ad buying, which we provide on our platform. In order to grow, we will need to continue to develop our platform’s programmatic capabilities and expand our advertising inventory, value-added services and data to support our clients’ advertising campaigns. We believe that key opportunities include our ongoing global expansion, continuing development of our omnichannel ad inventory (including in channels such as CTV and other video, mobile, audio and others), adoption and utilization of retail data and continuing development and adoption of the data usage, measurement and targeting capabilities provided by our platform.

We believe that growth of the programmatic advertising market is important for our ability to grow our business. Adoption of programmatic advertising by advertisers allows us to acquire new clients and grow revenue from existing clients. Although our clients include some of the largest advertising agencies and advertisers in the world, we believe there is significant room for us to expand our business relationships with these clients to gain a larger portion of their advertising spend through our platform. We also believe that the industry trends noted above will lead to advertisers adopting programmatic advertising through platforms such as ours.

Similarly, the adoption of programmatic advertising by inventory owners and content providers allows us to expand the volume and type of advertising inventory we present to our clients. For example, we have expanded our CTV, audio and other advertising offerings through our integrations with supply-side partners and publishers. Even if the programmatic advertising market continues to grow, the future of our business will depend on our ability to position ourselves within the market.

We invest for long-term growth. We anticipate that our operating expenses will continue to increase in the foreseeable future as we invest in platform operations for our hosting capabilities as well as technology and development to enhance our platform and related offerings, such as programmatic buying of CTV advertising inventory. We also anticipate that our sales and marketing expenses will continue to increase to acquire new clients and reinforce our relationships with existing clients. In addition, we expect to continue making investments in our infrastructure, including our information technology, financial and administrative systems and controls to support our growing operations.

We believe the markets outside of the United States, and in particular across Europe and Asia in markets such as the U.K, Germany, France, China, Japan, India and Australia, offer opportunities for growth. However, such markets may also pose challenges relating to compliance with local laws and regulations, restrictions on foreign ownership or investment, uncertainty relating to trade relations and a variety of additional risks. We intend to make additional investments in sales and marketing and product development to expand in international markets where we are making significant investments in our platform and growing our team.

We believe that these investments will contribute to our long-term growth, although they may negatively impact profitability in the near term.

Our business model has allowed us to grow significantly, and we believe that our operating leverage enables us to support future long-term growth profitably.

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Macroeconomic Uncertainty

Changes in interest rates, foreign currency exchange rates, inflation, trade policies and practices and other geopolitical developments have resulted, and may continue to result, in a global slowdown of economic activity, which may decrease demand for a broad variety of goods and services in various industries, including those provided by our clients, while also disrupting supply channels, sales channels and advertising and marketing activities for an unknown period of time until economic activity normalizes. As a result of the current uncertainty in economic activity, we are unable to predict the size and duration of the impact on our revenue and our results of operations. The extent of the impact of these macroeconomic factors on our operational and financial performance will depend on a variety of factors, and the duration and extent of geopolitical and global economic disruption and their respective impacts on our clients, partners, industry and employees, all of which are uncertain at this time and cannot be accurately predicted. See “Item 1A. Risk Factors” in Part II. Other Information for further discussion of the adverse impacts of macroeconomic uncertainty on our business.

Results of Operations for the Three and Six Months Ended June 30, 2025 Compared with the Three and Six Months Ended June 30, 2024

The following tables set forth our condensed consolidated results of operations for the periods presented.

	Three Months Ended June 30,
	2025				2024
	(in thousands)		(% of Revenue)		(in thousands)		(% of Revenue)
Revenue	$	694,039	100	%	$	584,550	100	%
Operating expenses:
Platform operations	150,980		22	%	110,459		19	%
Sales and marketing	161,131		23	%	133,867		23	%
Technology and development	134,251		19	%	110,035		19	%
General and administrative	130,900		19	%	135,469		23	%
Total operating expenses	577,262		83	%	489,830		84	%
Income from operations	116,777		17	%	94,720		16	%
Other expense (income):
Total other income, net	(16,424)		(2)	%	(17,772)		(3)	%
Income before income taxes	133,201		19	%	112,492		19	%
Provision for income taxes	43,072		6	%	27,463		5	%
Net income	$	90,129	13	%	$	85,029	15	%
	Six Months Ended June 30,
---	---	---	---	---	---	---	---	---
	2025				2024
	(in thousands)		(% of Revenue)		(in thousands)		(% of Revenue)
Revenue	$	1,310,060	100	%	$	1,075,803	100	%
Operating expenses:
Platform operations	293,819		22	%	214,089		20	%
Sales and marketing	313,874		24	%	255,592		24	%
Technology and development	266,653		20	%	217,721		20	%
General and administrative	264,485		20	%	265,024		25	%
Total operating expenses	1,138,831		87	%	952,426		89	%
Income from operations	171,229		13	%	123,377		11	%
Other expense (income):
Total other income, net	(37,741)		(3)	%	(35,148)		(3)	%
Income before income taxes	208,970		16	%	158,525		15	%
Provision for income taxes	68,163		5	%	41,836		4	%
Net income	$	140,807	11	%	$	116,689	11	%

_______________

Note: Percentages may not sum due to rounding.

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Revenue

Revenue increased by $109 million, or 19%, and $234 million, or 22%, for the three and six months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the three and six months ended June 30, 2024, respectively. The increase was primarily due to higher gross spend in the current year on our platform, which was primarily driven by higher spend per campaign, new clients and more campaigns executed by existing clients. The increase in revenue was also due to changes in the mix of value-added services and data utilized by clients for their campaigns, which fluctuates from period to period.

Platform Operations

Platform operations expense increased by $41 million, or 37%, for the three months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the three months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to increases of $33 million in hosting costs and $6 million in personnel costs, which included a $2 million increase in stock-based compensation. The increase in hosting costs was primarily attributable to support costs relating to the increased use of our platform by our clients, increased use of features by our technical teams in support of our platform and investment in new data centers to support the continued growth of our platform. The increase in personnel costs was primarily due to headcount growth as well as the increase in stock-based compensation driven by new equity awards and the impact of stock price volatility on our ESPP.

Platform operations expense increased by $80 million, or 37%, for the six months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the six months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to increases of $63 million in hosting costs and $14 million in personnel costs, which included a $5 million increase in stock-based compensation. The increase in hosting costs was primarily attributable to support costs relating to the increased use of our platform by our clients, increased use of features by our technical teams in support of our platform and investment in new data centers to support the continued growth of our platform. The increase in personnel costs was primarily due to headcount growth as well as the increase in stock-based compensation driven by new equity awards and the impact of stock price volatility on our ESPP.

We expect platform operations expenses to increase in absolute dollars in future periods as we continue to experience increased volumes of media impressions through our platform, invest in our hosting capabilities, including supporting new technical features and functionality of our platform and related offerings, and hire additional personnel to support our growth.

Sales and Marketing

Sales and marketing expense increased by $27 million, or 20%, for the three months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the three months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to increases of $20 million in personnel costs, which included a $5 million increase in stock-based compensation, $5 million in marketing costs and $2 million in allocated facilities costs. The increase in personnel costs was primarily due to headcount growth to support our sales efforts and to continue to develop and maintain relationships with our clients and an increase in incentive compensation driven by gross spend growth. The increase in stock-based compensation was primarily driven by new equity awards and the impact of stock price volatility on our ESPP. The increase in marketing costs was primarily due to an increase in marketing campaigns, events, creatives, sponsorships and client engagement. The increase in allocated facilities costs was primarily driven by new leases for additional office space to support our future growth as well as office support expenses.

Sales and marketing expense increased by $58 million, or 23%, for the six months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the six months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to increases of $45 million in personnel costs, which included a $14 million increase in stock-based compensation, $8 million in marketing costs and $5 million in allocated facilities costs. The increase in personnel costs was primarily due to headcount growth to support our sales efforts and to continue to develop and maintain relationships with our clients and an increase in incentive compensation driven by gross spend growth. The increase in stock-based compensation was primarily driven by new equity awards and the impact of stock price volatility on our ESPP. The increase in marketing costs was primarily due to an increase in marketing campaigns, events, creatives, sponsorships and client engagement. The increase in allocated facilities costs was primarily driven by new leases for additional office space to support our future growth as well as office support expenses.

We expect sales and marketing expenses to increase in absolute dollars in future periods, as we continue to hire additional personnel and focus on increasing the adoption of our platform and related offerings with existing and new clients and expanding our international business.

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Technology and Development

Technology and development expense increased by $24 million, or 22%, for the three months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the three months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to increases of $21 million in personnel costs, which included a $10 million increase in stock-based compensation, and $3 million in allocated facilities costs. The increase in stock-based compensation was primarily driven by new equity awards and the impact of stock price volatility on our ESPP. The increase in other personnel costs was primarily attributable to headcount growth to maintain and support further development of our platform and related offerings. The increase in allocated facilities costs was primarily driven by new leases for additional office space to support our future growth as well as office support expenses.

Technology and development expense increased by $49 million, or 22%, for the six months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the six months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to increases of $42 million in personnel costs, which included a $23 million increase in stock-based compensation, and $6 million in allocated facilities costs. The increase in stock-based compensation was primarily driven by new equity awards and the impact of stock price volatility on our ESPP. The increase in other personnel costs was primarily attributable to headcount growth to maintain and support further development of our platform and related offerings. The increase in allocated facilities costs was primarily driven by new leases for additional office space to support our future growth as well as office support expenses.

We expect technology and development expense to increase in absolute dollars as we continue to hire additional personnel, invest in the development of our platform and related offerings to support additional features and functionality, increase the number of advertising inventory and data suppliers and support the anticipated increase in volume of advertising spending by our clients on our platform.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expense decreased by $5 million, or 3%, for the three months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the three months ended June 30, 2024, primarily due to a $15 million decrease in stock-based compensation, partially offset by increases of $6 million in administrative costs, $2 million in personnel costs and $1 million in allocated facilities costs. The decrease in stock-based compensation was primarily due to a $17 million decrease relating to the CEO Performance Option driven by the graded-vesting attribution method, under which more expense is recognized earlier in the option’s life, partially offset by a $2 million increase primarily driven by new equity awards and the impact of stock price volatility on our ESPP. The increase in administrative costs was primarily driven by increases in external professional fees, including legal expenses for various litigation, regulatory and governance matters. The increase in personnel costs was primarily attributable to increased headcount to support our growth, partially offset by a decrease in cash incentive award expenses. The increase in allocated facilities costs was primarily driven by new leases for additional office space to support our future growth as well as office support expenses.

General and administrative expense decreased by $0.5 million, or 0.2%, for the six months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the six months ended June 30, 2024, primarily due to a $23 million decrease in stock-based compensation, partially offset by increases of $13 million in administrative costs, $6 million in personnel costs and $2 million in allocated facilities costs. The decrease in stock-based compensation was primarily due to a $28 million decrease relating to the CEO Performance Option driven by the graded-vesting attribution method, under which more expense is recognized earlier in the option’s life, partially offset by a $5 million increase primarily driven by new equity awards and the impact of stock price volatility on our ESPP. The increase in administrative costs was primarily driven by increases in external professional fees, including legal expenses for various litigation, regulatory and governance matters. The increase in personnel costs was primarily attributable to increased headcount to support our growth, partially offset by a decrease in cash incentive award expenses. The increase in allocated facilities costs was primarily driven by new leases for additional office space to support our future growth as well as office support expenses.

Excluding the impact of the CEO Performance Option, we expect general and administrative expenses to increase primarily due to continued investment in corporate infrastructure, headcount to support growth and various litigation, regulatory and governance matters, for which expenses may fluctuate from period to period.

Total Other Income, Net

Total other income, net, decreased by $1 million for the three months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the three months ended June 30, 2024. The decrease was primarily due to losses on foreign currency forwards driven by changes in foreign currency exchange rates against the U.S. Dollar, partially offset by foreign currency transaction gains.

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Total other income, net, increased by $3 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the six months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to higher interest income on our cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments driven by higher amounts invested as well as foreign currency transaction gains driven by changes in foreign currency exchange rates against the U.S. Dollar, partially offset by losses on foreign currency forwards and falling portfolio interest rates.

Provision for Income Taxes

The U.S. federal statutory tax rate was 21% for the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024.

The provision for income taxes increased by $16 million for the three months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the three months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to lower tax benefits associated with employee stock-based awards and higher pre-tax profitability, partially offset by a lower impact attributable to nondeductible stock-based compensation.

The provision for income taxes increased by $26 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025, as compared to the six months ended June 30, 2024. The increase was primarily due to higher pre-tax profitability and lower tax benefits associated with employee stock-based awards, partially offset by a lower impact attributable to nondeductible stock-based compensation.

On July 4, 2025, the United States enacted the OBBBA, which changes or makes permanent certain tax laws for corporations. Currently, the Company does not expect the provisions of the OBBBA to have a material impact on its effective tax rate or total provision for income taxes. However, depending on the Company’s elections under the OBBBA, it could experience an increase in income taxes receivable and a reduction in deferred tax assets relating to domestic research and development expenses. Refer to Note 9 - Income Taxes for further information regarding the impact of the OBBBA in future periods.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

As of June 30, 2025, we had working capital of $2,105 million, which included $896 million in cash and cash equivalents, $120 million of which was held by our international subsidiaries, and $791 million in short-term investments in marketable securities. Additionally, we had $443 million available under our Amended Credit Facility (refer to the “Credit Facility” section below). For the six months ended June 30, 2025, we generated $456 million in cash flows from operating activities.

We believe our existing cash and cash equivalents, cash flow from operations, and our undrawn available balance under our Amended Credit Facility will be sufficient to meet our working capital requirements and investments we make from time to time for at least the next 12 months. We believe our existing cash and cash equivalents, short-term investments and cash flow from operations will be sufficient to fund our share repurchase program. Further, we have a shelf registration statement on Form S-3 on file with the SEC (the “Shelf Registration”), which permits us to issue equity securities and equity-linked securities from time to time, subject to certain limitations. The Shelf Registration is intended to provide us with additional flexibility to access capital markets for general corporate purposes, subject to market conditions and our capital needs. Our future capital requirements and the adequacy of available funds will depend on many factors, including those set forth in “Item 1A. Risk Factors” within this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q.

In the future, we may attempt to raise additional capital through the sale of equity securities or through equity-linked or debt-financing arrangements. If we raise additional funds by issuing equity or equity-linked securities, the ownership of our existing stockholders will be diluted. If we raise additional financing by incurring additional indebtedness, we may be subject to increased fixed payment obligations and could also be subject to additional restrictive covenants, such as limitations on our ability to incur additional debt, and other operating restrictions that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business. Any future indebtedness we incur may result in terms that could be unfavorable to equity investors.

There can be no assurance that we will be able to raise additional capital. The inability to raise capital would adversely affect our ability to achieve our business objectives. In addition, if our operating performance during the next 12 months is below our expectations, our liquidity and ability to operate our business could be adversely affected. We are closely monitoring the effect that current macroeconomic factors may have on our working capital requirements.

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Credit Facility

On June 15, 2021, we and a syndicate of banks, led by JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as agent, entered into a Loan and Security Agreement (the “Credit Facility”). The Credit Facility consists of a $450 million revolving loan facility, with a $20 million sublimit for swingline borrowings and a $15 million sublimit for the issuance of letters of credit. Under certain circumstances, we have the right to increase the Credit Facility by an amount not to exceed $300 million.

On December 17, 2021, we amended the Credit Facility to expand the process for issuing letters of credit and the related invoicing, particularly with respect to letters of credit not denominated in U.S. Dollars. On February 9, 2023, we further amended the Credit Facility (as amended, the “Amended Credit Facility”) to transition from a variable interest rate based on the London Interbank Offered Rate to a variable interest rate based on the secured overnight financing rate (“SOFR”).

As of June 30, 2025, we did not have an outstanding debt balance under the Amended Credit Facility. Availability under the Amended Credit Facility was $443 million as of June 30, 2025, which is net of outstanding letters of credit of $7 million. The Amended Credit Facility matures, and all outstanding amounts become due and payable, on June 15, 2026. As of June 30, 2025, we were in compliance with all covenants.

For additional information regarding the Amended Credit Facility, refer to Note 6—Debt.

Other Short-Term Borrowings

On June 30, 2025, we had an outstanding balance of $74 million relating to an overdraft of an account pursuant to customary conditions governing our depositary relationship with JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A. This outstanding balance is included in accounts payable in the condensed consolidated balance sheets and as proceeds from short-term borrowings in the condensed consolidated statements of cash flows.

Share Repurchase Program

In February 2023, our board of directors approved a share repurchase program to repurchase our Class A common stock. The share repurchase program, which has no expiration date, is designed to help offset the impact of future share dilution from employee stock issuances. Repurchases under the program may be made in the open market, in privately negotiated transactions or otherwise, with the amount and timing of repurchases determined at our discretion, depending on market conditions and corporate needs. Open market repurchases are structured to occur in accordance with applicable federal securities laws, including within the pricing and volume requirements of Rule 10b-18 under the Exchange Act. We may also, from time to time, enter into Rule 10b5-1 plans to facilitate repurchases of shares under this authorization. This program does not obligate us to acquire any particular amount of Class A common stock, and may be modified, suspended or terminated at any time at the discretion of our board of directors.

As of December 31, 2024, $464 million remained available and authorized for repurchases. At the end of January 2025, an additional $564 million was authorized under this program, bringing the total amount available for future repurchases to $1 billion. During the three months ended June 30, 2025, we repurchased and subsequently retired 3.7 million shares of our Class A common stock for an aggregate repurchase amount of $257 million. During the six months ended June 30, 2025, we repurchased and subsequently retired 10 million shares of our Class A common stock for an aggregate repurchase amount of $657 million. The repurchase amounts included in the condensed consolidated statements of stockholders’ equity include immaterial amounts relating to the 1% excise tax on share repurchases, net of share issuances, as a result of the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (“IRA”). As of June 30, 2025, $375 million remained available and authorized for repurchases.

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Cash Flows

The following table summarizes our cash flows for the periods presented:

	Six Months Ended June 30,
	2025		2024
	(in thousands)
Net cash provided by operating activities	$	456,446	$	266,731
Net cash used in investing activities	$	(346,155)	$	(37,134)
Net cash used in financing activities	$	(583,367)	$	(115,363)

Operating Activities

Our cash flows from operating activities are primarily influenced by growth in our operations, increases or decreases in collections from our clients and related payments to our suppliers for Supplier Components. We typically pay suppliers in advance of collections from our clients. Our collection and payment cycles can vary from period to period. In addition, we expect seasonality to impact cash flows from operating activities on a sequential quarterly basis during the year.

For the six months ended June 30, 2025, cash provided by operating activities of $456 million resulted primarily from net income adjusted for noncash items of $470 million and a net decrease from our operating assets and liabilities of $14 million. The net decrease from our operating assets and liabilities was due to a $32 million decrease in operating lease liabilities, a $24 million decrease in accrued expenses and other liabilities, a $20 million decrease in accounts payable and an $18 million increase in prepaid expenses and other assets, partially offset by an $80 million decrease in accounts receivable. The decrease in operating lease liabilities was due primarily to rent payments. The decrease in accrued expenses and other liabilities was primarily due to tax payments against the prior year income tax liability and a reduction of the liability relating to the ESPP due to the purchase of shares in accordance with the plan, partially offset by the timing of payment for certain personnel costs. The decrease in accounts payable was due to the timing and seasonality of payments to suppliers for Supplier Components. The increase in prepaid expenses and other assets was primarily due to estimated tax payments, partially offset by the current tax provision and the timing of payment for employee engagement costs, including for travel and in-person events that occurred in the first quarter of 2025. The decrease in accounts receivable was due to the timing and seasonality of cash receipts from clients.

For the six months ended June 30, 2024, cash provided by operating activities of $267 million resulted primarily from net income adjusted for noncash items of $419 million, and a net decrease from our operating assets and liabilities of $152 million. The net decrease from our operating assets and liabilities was primarily due to a $52 million increase in prepaid expenses and other assets, a $49 million increase in accounts receivable, a $27 million decrease in operating lease liabilities, a $13 million decrease in accounts payable and a $10 million decrease in accrued expenses and other liabilities. The increase in prepaid expenses and other assets was primarily due to cash paid for income taxes. The increase in accounts receivable was due to the timing and seasonality of cash receipts from clients and the growth of our business. The decrease in operating lease liabilities was due primarily to rent payments. The decrease in accounts payable was due to the timing and seasonality of payments to suppliers for Supplier Components. The decrease in accrued expenses and other liabilities was primarily due to incentive compensation payments and a reduction of the liability relating to the ESPP due to the purchase of shares in accordance with the plan.

Investing Activities

Our primary investing activities consist of investing in short-term marketable securities, capital expenditures for property and equipment for the expansion of facilities to support our hosting capabilities and growing headcount as well as capital expenditures to develop our software in support of enhancing our platform and related offerings. As our business grows, we expect our capital expenditures to increase, and our other investment activity may increase.

For the six months ended June 30, 2025, we used $346 million of cash in investing activities, consisting of $232 million of net purchases of short-term investments, $104 million to purchase property and equipment, $6 million of investments in capitalized software and $4 million for the acquisition of certain assets accounted for as a business combination.

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For the six months ended June 30, 2024, we used $37 million of cash in investing activities, consisting of $29 million to purchase property and equipment, $4 million of investments in capitalized software and $3 million of net purchases of short-term investments.

Financing Activities

For the six months ended June 30, 2025, we used $583 million of cash in financing activities, consisting of $647 million of cash paid for repurchases of our Class A common stock and $57 million of taxes paid for restricted stock award settlements, partially offset by $74 million of proceeds from short-term borrowings, $32 million of proceeds from our ESPP and $14 million of proceeds from stock option exercises. Refer to Note 6 - Debt for further information regarding short-term borrowings.

For the six months ended June 30, 2024, we used $115 million of cash in financing activities, consisting of $125 million of cash paid for repurchases of Class A common stock and $58 million of taxes paid for restricted stock award settlements, partially offset by $38 million of proceeds from stock option exercises and $30 million of proceeds from our ESPP.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

We do not have any relationships with other entities or financial partnerships, such as entities often referred to as structured finance or special purpose entities that have been established for the purpose of facilitating off-balance sheet arrangements or other contractually narrow or limited purposes. We did not have any other off-balance sheet arrangements at June 30, 2025 other than the indemnification agreements described below.

Contractual Obligations

Our principal commitments consist of non-cancelable operating leases for our various office and hosting facilities and other contractual commitments consisting of obligations to our hosting services, hardware providers and providers of software as a service. In certain cases, the terms of the lease agreements provide for rental payments on a graduated basis.

The following table summarizes our non-cancelable contractual obligations as of June 30, 2025 (in thousands):

	Payments Due by Period
	Remainder of 2025		2026 and Thereafter		Total
Operating lease commitments	$	26,251	$	782,993	$	809,244
Other contractual commitments	225,751		170,805		396,556
Total	$	252,002	$	953,798	$	1,205,800

In the ordinary course of business, we enter into agreements in which we may agree to indemnify clients, suppliers, vendors, lessors, business partners, lenders, stockholders and other parties with respect to certain matters, including losses resulting from claims of intellectual property infringement, damages to property or persons, business losses or other liabilities. Generally, these indemnity and defense obligations relate to our own business operations, obligations and acts or omissions. However, under some circumstances, we agree to indemnify and defend contract counterparties against losses resulting from their own business operations, obligations and acts or omissions, or the business operations, obligations and acts or omissions of third parties. These indemnity provisions generally survive termination or expiration of the agreements in which they appear. In addition, we have entered into indemnification agreements with our directors, executive officers and other officers that will require us to indemnify them against liabilities that may arise by reason of their status or service as directors, officers or employees. In the ordinary course of business, demands have been made upon us to provide indemnification under such agreements, but we are not aware of any claims that could have a material effect on our condensed consolidated financial statements. Accordingly, no material amounts have been recorded at June 30, 2025.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Our condensed consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with GAAP. The preparation of these condensed consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported

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amounts of assets, liabilities, revenue, expenses and related disclosures. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Our estimates are based on historical experience and various other assumptions that we believe to be reasonable under the circumstances. Our actual results could differ from these estimates.

We believe that the assumptions and estimates associated with the evaluation of revenue recognition criteria, including the determination of revenue recognition as net versus gross in our revenue arrangements, stock-based compensation expense and income taxes, including the realizability of deferred tax assets, have the greatest potential impact on our condensed consolidated financial statements. Therefore, we consider these to be our critical accounting policies and estimates.

Refer to Note 8— Stock-Based Compensation for information regarding the amendment and restatement of our 2016 Plan. We do not currently expect that the new or modified provisions under the amended and restated 2016 Plan will have a material impact on our financial statements in the near term.

Refer to Note 9 - Income Taxes for information regarding the impact of the OBBBA on income taxes in future periods.

Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements

Refer to Note 2—Basis of Presentation and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies of our condensed consolidated financial statements.

Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk

We have operations both within the United States and internationally, and we are exposed to market risks in the ordinary course of our business. These risks include primarily interest rate and foreign currency exchange risks.

Interest Rate Risk

We are exposed to market risk from changes in interest rates under our Amended Credit Facility, which accrues interest at a variable rate. No amount was owed on our Amended Credit Facility as of June 30, 2025. We have not used any derivative financial instruments to manage our interest rate risk exposure. Based upon the short-term investments amount as of June 30, 2025, a hypothetical one percentage point increase or decrease in the interest rate would result in a corresponding increase or decrease in investment income of approximately $8 million annually.

Foreign Currency Exchange Risk

We have foreign currency exchange risk relating to transactions denominated in currencies other than the U.S. Dollar, principally the Euro, British Pound, Canadian Dollar, Australian Dollar, Japanese Yen, Indian Rupee, Indonesian Rupiah, Hong Kong Dollar, Singapore Dollar and New Zealand Dollar. The volatility of exchange rates depends on many factors that we cannot forecast with reliable accuracy. As of June 30, 2025, an immediate 10% adverse change in foreign exchange rates on foreign-denominated accounts would result in a foreign currency loss of approximately $39 million. In the event our non-U.S. Dollar denominated sales and expenses increase, our operating results may be more greatly affected by exchange rate fluctuations.

We enter into forward contracts or other derivative transactions in an attempt to hedge our foreign currency risk. There can be no assurance that such transactions will be effective in hedging some or all of our foreign currency exposures, and under some circumstances they could generate losses for us.

Item 4. Controls and Procedures

Evaluation of Disclosure Controls and Procedures

Our management, with the participation of our Chief Executive Officer (“CEO”) and Chief Financial Officer (“CFO”), evaluated the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Exchange Act as of June 30, 2025. Our disclosure controls and procedures are designed to provide reasonable assurance that information we are required to disclose in the reports we file or submit under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to our management, including our CEO and CFO, as appropriate to allow timely decisions regarding required disclosures, and is recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the time periods specified in

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the SEC’s rules and forms. Based on this evaluation, our CEO and CFO have concluded that our disclosure controls and procedures were effective at the reasonable assurance level as of June 30, 2025.

Changes in Internal Control over Financial Reporting

There have been no significant changes in our internal control over financial reporting during the quarter ended June 30, 2025 that have materially affected, or are reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

Inherent Limitations on Effectiveness of Controls

Management recognizes that a control system, no matter how well conceived and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the objectives of the control system are met. Further, the design of a control system must reflect the fact that there are resource constraints, and the benefits of controls must be considered relative to their costs. Because of the inherent limitations in all control systems, no evaluation of controls can provide absolute assurance that all control issues and instances of fraud or error, if any, have been detected. These inherent limitations include the realities that judgments in decision making can be faulty, and that breakdowns can occur because of a simple error or mistake. Additionally, controls can be circumvented by the individual acts of some persons, by collusion of two or more people, or by management override of the controls. The design of any system of controls also is based in part upon certain assumptions about the likelihood of future events, and there can be no assurance that any design will succeed in achieving its stated goals under all potential future conditions; over time, controls may become inadequate because of changes in conditions, or the degree of compliance with policies or procedures may deteriorate. Because of the inherent limitations in a cost-effective control system, misstatements due to error or fraud may occur and not be detected.

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PART II. OTHER INFORMATION

Item 1. Legal Proceedings

From time to time, we are subject to various legal proceedings, litigation and claims, either asserted or unasserted, that arise in the ordinary course of business. Although the outcome of the various legal proceedings, litigation and claims cannot be predicted with certainty, management does not believe that any of these proceedings or other claims will have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations or cash flows. Regardless of the outcome, litigation can have an adverse impact on us because of defense and settlement costs, diversion of management resources and other factors.

Litigation Related to 2021 CEO Performance Option

On May 27, 2022, a stockholder filed a derivative lawsuit captioned Huizenga v. Green, No. 2022-0461, asserting claims on our behalf against certain members of our board of directors in the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware. On June 27, 2022, a second derivative lawsuit captioned Pfeiffer v. Green, No. 2022-0560, was filed in the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware alleging substantially similar claims. Those lawsuits were consolidated on August 18, 2022, and a lead plaintiff was appointed on October 7, 2022. The two complaints alleged generally that the defendants breached their fiduciary duties to us and our stockholders in connection with the negotiation and approval of a market-based performance award to our Chief Executive Officer (the “CEO Performance Option”). The plaintiffs sought a court order rescinding the CEO Performance Option and monetary damages. On November 10, 2022, the plaintiffs filed a consolidated complaint, and on January 12, 2023, the defendants moved to dismiss the consolidated complaint. On February 14, 2025, the court granted the motions to dismiss under Court of Chancery Rule 23.1 in their entirety with prejudice, finding that the plaintiffs did not allege facts sufficient to infer that at least half of our board of directors received a material benefit from the CEO Performance Option, lacked independence from Mr. Green, or faced a “substantial likelihood of liability” from having approved the CEO Performance Option. The plaintiffs filed a notice of appeal of the court’s decision. On April 29, 2025, the plaintiffs filed their opening brief. On May 29, 2025, the defendants filed their answering brief. On June 13, 2025, the plaintiffs filed their reply brief. The appeal remains pending.

Litigation Related to Reincorporation

On October 4, 2024, a stockholder filed a class action complaint in the Court of Chancery in the State of Delaware alleging claims for breach of contract against us and breach of fiduciary duties against our directors, in connection with our reincorporation from Delaware to Nevada. Gunderson v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 2024-1029 (Del. Ch.) (the “Gunderson Action”). On October 24, 2024, the plaintiff filed an amended complaint. The complaint sought, among other things, an order declaring that our conversion required approval by a supermajority of our stockholders and an order enjoining the November 14, 2024 stockholder vote on the conversion. On October 28, 2024, the parties completed expedited briefing on cross motions for partial summary judgment regarding the causes of action asserted in the original complaint, and the court heard oral argument on the motions on October 30, 2024. On November 6, 2024, the court granted the defendants’ summary judgment motion and denied the plaintiff’s cross-motion, finding that the conversion did not require supermajority approval of our stockholders, and that the defendants did not breach their fiduciary duties by disclosing that the conversion required a vote of a simple majority of our stockholders. The plaintiff chose not to appeal. The case is now proceeding as to the plaintiff’s remaining claims that our directors breached their fiduciary duties because our reincorporation to Nevada was substantively and procedurally unfair, and that the transaction is not subject to the business judgment rule because it was not subject to approval by a special committee of the board or by a majority of the disinterested stockholders. The defendants have moved to dismiss, but no briefing schedule has been set. On April 28, 2025, the plaintiff in the Scarantino Action (as defined below) moved to intervene and stay the Gunderson Action. On May 20, 2025, the Court granted the motion to intervene and stayed the Gunderson Action pending completion of the books and records inspection in the Scarantino Action.

On November 15, 2024, a different stockholder filed a complaint in the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware requesting production of our corporate books and records relating to the Nevada conversion, pursuant to 8 Del. C. § 220. City of Roseville Employees Retirement System v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 2024-1173 (Del. Ch.). On November 27, 2024, the parties agreed to stay the proceeding in exchange for the production of certain documents to the plaintiff; the court granted the stay the same day. On April 18, 2025, the stockholder voluntarily dismissed the complaint without prejudice.

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Litigation Related to Securities Class Actions

On February 19, 2025, plaintiff United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers & Allied Workers Local Union No. 8 WBPA Fund filed a purported federal securities class action complaint in the United States District Court, Central District of California, captioned United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers Local Union No. 8 v. The Trade Desk, Inc. et al. (No. 2:25-cv-01396), against us as well as our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer. The complaint alleges that the defendants made false and misleading statements in violation of Sections 10(b) and 20(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, and Rule 10b-5 promulgated thereunder. The action purports to be brought on behalf of those who purchased or otherwise acquired our publicly traded securities between May 9, 2024 and February 12, 2025 and seeks unspecified damages and other relief. On March 20, 2025, the court granted the parties’ joint stipulation, ordering that defendants need not respond to the current complaint, pending the appointment of lead plaintiff and lead counsel.

On March 5, 2025, two additional related purported class action lawsuits were filed in the United States District Court, Central District of California, captioned Savorelli v. The Trade Desk, Inc. et al. (No. 2:25-cv-01915), bringing claims against us as well as our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, and New England Teamsters Pension Fund v. The Trade Desk, Inc. et al. (No. 2:25-cv-01936), bringing claims against us as well as our Chief Executive Officer, Chief Financial Officer and Chief Strategy Officer. Both complaints allege that the defendants made false and misleading statements, similar to the allegations contained in the United Union of Roofers action, in violation of Sections 10(b) and 20(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, and Rule 10b-5 promulgated thereunder. The actions are also purportedly brought on behalf of those who purchased or otherwise acquired our publicly traded securities between May 9, 2024 and February 12, 2025 and seek unspecified damages and other relief. On March 18, 2025, the court entered orders relating the Savorelli and New England actions to the first-filed United Union of Roofers action, 2:25-cv-01396 (CAS). On March 28, 2025, the court granted the parties’ joint stipulations in the Savorelli and New England matters, ordering that defendants need not respond to the current complaints, pending the appointment of lead plaintiff and lead counsel.

Shareholder Derivative Actions

On March 6, 2025 and March 14, 2025, plaintiffs Nathan C. Silva and Daniel Jong, respectively, filed purported shareholder derivative complaints in the United States District Court, Central District of California, captioned Silva v. Green et al. (No. 2:25-cv-01975) and Jong v. Green et al. (No. 2:25-cv-02268), against current and former officers and directors of the Company, naming us as a nominal defendant. The complaints generally arise out of the same allegations contained in the securities class actions and allege claims for breach of fiduciary duties and related claims. The actions purport to be brought derivatively on our behalf and seek damages and other various forms of relief. On April 9, 2025, the court granted the parties’ stipulations consolidating the shareholder derivative actions and appointing Nathan C. Silva and Daniel Jong as Co-Plaintiffs and the Brown Law Firm, P.C. and Rigrodsky Law, P.A. as Co-Lead Counsel for Plaintiffs. The April 9, 2025 order also provided that defendants need not respond to the current complaints, and that the parties provide a proposed scheduling order regarding the designation or filing of an operative consolidated complaint and defendants’ responses thereto by June 9, 2025.

Litigation Related to Our Platform and Related Offerings

On March 28, 2025, two complaints alleging various wiretapping and privacy tort theories were filed against us in the United States District Court, Northern District of California, captioned Michie & Dryer v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 3:25-cv-2889 (N.D. Cal.) and Hernandez-Mendoza v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 4:25-cv-02923 (N.D. Cal.). A third complaint advancing similar allegations, captioned Turner v. The Trade Desk, Inc., No. 3:25-cv-03136 (N.D. Cal.), was originally filed on March 31, 2025 in the United States District Court, Central District of California, but was voluntarily dismissed and refiled on April 7, 2025 in the United States District Court, Northern District of California. The complaints have now been consolidated into a single consolidated amended complaint, filed July 18, 2025, and the case is still in its early stages. Management believes the claims asserted in these complaints to be meritless and intends to vigorously defend against them.

Litigation is inherently uncertain and there can be no assurance regarding the likelihood that the motions to dismiss or defense of the various actions will be successful.

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Item 1A. Risk Factors

Investing in our Class A common stock involves a high degree of risk. You should consider carefully the risks and uncertainties described below, together with all of the other information contained in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, including the condensed consolidated financial statements and the related notes and Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, before making investment decisions related to our Class A common stock. If any of the following risks are realized, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects could be materially and adversely affected. In that event, the market price of our Class A common stock could decline and you could lose part or all of your investment.

Risks Related to Our Business and Industry

If we fail to maintain and grow our client base and spend through our platform and related offerings, our revenue and business may be negatively impacted.

To sustain or increase our revenue, we must regularly add new clients and encourage existing clients to maintain or increase the amount of spend through our platform and adopt existing or new offerings that we make available. If competitors introduce lower cost or differentiated offerings that compete with or are perceived to compete with our offerings, our ability to sell our services to new or existing clients could be impaired. We have spent significant effort in cultivating our relationships with advertising agencies and advertisers, which has resulted in an increase in the budgets allocated to, and the amount of advertising purchased on, our platform. However, it is possible that we may reach a point of saturation at which we cannot continue to grow our revenue from such agencies or advertisers because of internal limits that advertisers may place on the allocation of their advertising budgets to digital media to a particular provider or otherwise. While we generally have master services agreements (“MSAs”) in place with our clients, such agreements allow our clients to choose the amount they spend through our platform and terminate our services with limited notice. We at times supplement our MSAs with joint business plans and other incentive programs designed to increase spend from existing clients; however, such increased spend may not materialize in the amounts we expect or at all. We do not typically have exclusive relationships with our clients and there is limited cost and difficulty to moving their media spend to our competitors. As a result, we have limited visibility to our future advertising revenue streams. We cannot assure you that our clients will continue to use our platform or related offerings to the extent that we expect or at all, or that we will be able to replace, in a timely or effective manner, departing clients with new clients that generate comparable revenue. If a major client representing a significant portion of our business decides to materially reduce its use of our platform or related offerings or to cease their use altogether, it is possible that our revenue or revenue growth rate could be significantly reduced, and our business negatively impacted.

The loss of advertising agencies, advertisers or holding companies as clients could significantly harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our client base consists primarily of advertising agencies and advertisers. We do not have exclusive relationships with advertising agencies or advertisers, and we depend on agencies to work with us to build and maintain advertiser relationships and execute advertising campaigns.

The loss of agencies or advertisers as clients could significantly harm our business, financial condition and results of operations. If we fail to maintain satisfactory relationships with an advertising agency, we risk losing business from the current and future advertisers represented by that agency.

Advertisers may change advertising agencies. If an advertiser switches from an agency that utilizes our platform to one that does not, we will lose revenue from that advertiser. In addition, some advertising agencies have their own relationships with suppliers of advertising inventory and data and can directly connect advertisers with such suppliers. Our business may suffer to the extent that advertising agencies and such suppliers purchase and sell advertising inventory or data directly from one another or through intermediaries other than us.

Our clients include advertising agencies, many of which are owned by holding companies, where decision making is decentralized such that purchasing decisions are made, and relationships with advertisers are located, at the agency, local branch or division level. If all of our individual client contractual relationships were aggregated at the holding company level, one holding company would have represented more than 10% of our gross billings for 2024.

In most cases, we enter into separate contracts and billing relationships with the individual agencies and account for them as separate clients. However, some holding companies for these agencies may choose to exert control over the

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individual agencies in the future. Additionally, a holding company may be acquired by, or consolidate with, another holding company that does not utilize our platform, or may otherwise reduce overall spend on our platform as a result of an acquisition or consolidation. If so, any consolidation of, or loss of relationships with such holding companies and consequently, of their agencies, local branches or divisions, as clients could significantly harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The market for programmatic buying for advertising campaigns is relatively new and evolving. If this market develops slower or differently than we expect, our business, growth prospects and financial condition could be adversely affected.

The substantial majority of our revenue has been derived from clients that programmatically purchase advertising through our platform. We expect that spend on programmatic ad buying will continue to be our primary source of revenue for the foreseeable future and that our revenue growth will largely depend on increasing spend through our platform. The market for programmatic ad buying is a relatively new market, and our current and potential clients may not shift to programmatic ad buying from other buying methods as quickly as we expect, which would reduce our growth potential. If the market for programmatic ad buying deteriorates or develops more slowly than we expect, it could reduce demand for our platform, and our business, growth prospects and financial condition would be adversely affected.

In addition, our revenue may not necessarily grow at the same rate as spend on our platform. As the market for programmatic buying for advertising matures, growth in spend may outpace growth in our revenue due to a number of factors, including pricing competition, volume discounts and shifts in media, client and channel mix, and the composition of offerings provided to our clients. A significant change in revenue as a percentage of spend could reflect an adverse change in our business and growth prospects. In addition, any such fluctuations, even if they reflect our strategic decisions, could cause our performance to fall below the expectations of securities analysts and investors, and adversely affect the price of our common stock.

Any decrease in the use of the advertising channels that we are primarily dependent upon, failure to expand the use of emerging channels, or unexpected shift in use among the channels in which we operate, could harm our growth prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

Historically, our clients have predominantly used our platform to purchase CTV and other video, mobile and display advertising inventory. In particular, the CTV market is quickly evolving and the demand for CTV inventory on our platform has been a significant driver of growth. We expect that these will continue to be significant channels used by our clients for digital advertising in the future. We also believe that our revenue growth may depend on our ability to expand within our channels, especially CTV, and we have been, and are continuing to, enhance such channels. Any decrease in the use of video, mobile and display advertising, whether due to clients losing confidence in the value or effectiveness of such channels, regulatory restrictions, consumer choices, or other causes, or any inability to further penetrate certain channels including CTV, or enter new and emerging advertising channels, could harm our growth prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

Each advertising channel presents distinct and substantial risk and, in many cases, requires us to continue to develop additional functionality or features to address the particular requirements of the channel. Our ability to provide capabilities across multiple advertising channels, which we refer to as omnichannel, may be constrained if we are not able to maintain or grow advertising inventory for such channels, and some of our omnichannel offerings may not gain market acceptance. If we fail to maintain a diversified channel mix, a decrease in the demand for any channel or channels that we become primarily dependent upon could harm our business, financial condition and results of operations. We may not be able to accurately predict changes in overall advertiser demand for the channels in which we operate and cannot assure you that our investment in channel development will correspond to any such changes. Furthermore, if our channel mix changes due to a shift in client demand, such as clients shifting their spend more quickly or more extensively than expected to channels in which we have relatively less functionality, features, or inventory, then demand for our platform could decrease, and our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Macroeconomic conditions beyond our control could harm the overall demand for advertising and the economic health of agencies and advertisers, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our business depends on the overall demand for advertising and on the economic health of the agencies and advertisers that use our platform. Market uncertainties or downturns, whether global, local or industry or sector specific, and any associated macroeconomic conditions, such as growing inflation, concerns around a potential recession, changes in interest rates, changes in foreign currency exchange rates, changes in trade policies and practices, supply chain disruptions,

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the impact of global instability in many parts of the world, and public health crises, may disrupt the operations of our clients and partners and cause agencies and advertisers to decrease or pause their advertising budgets, which could reduce spend though our platform and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. As we explore new countries to expand our business, economic downturns or unstable market conditions in any of those countries could also result in our investments not yielding the returns we anticipate.

If our access to quality advertising inventory is diminished or fails to expand, our revenue could decline and our growth could be impeded.

We must maintain a consistent supply of quality ad inventory that is attractive to our clients. Our success depends on our ability to secure quality inventory on reasonable terms across a broad range of advertising networks and exchanges and social media platforms, including CTV and other video, mobile, display and audio inventory. The amount, quality and cost of inventory available to us can change at any time, including as publishers and other inventory suppliers respond to changes in the legal and regulatory landscape. A few inventory suppliers hold a significant portion of the programmatic inventory either generally or concentrated in a particular channel, such as audio and social media. In addition, we compete with companies with which we have business relationships. For example, Google is one of our largest advertising inventory suppliers in addition to being one of our competitors. If Google or any other company with attractive advertising inventory limits our access to its advertising inventory, our business could be adversely affected. If our relationships with certain of our suppliers were to cease, or if the material terms of these relationships were to change unfavorably, our business would be negatively impacted. Our suppliers are generally not bound by long-term contracts. As a result, there is no guarantee that we will have access to a consistent supply of quality inventory on favorable terms or at all. If we are unable to compete favorably for advertising inventory available on real-time advertising exchanges, or if real-time advertising exchanges decide not to make their advertising inventory available to us, we may not be able to place advertisements or find alternative sources of inventory with comparable traffic patterns and consumer demographics in a timely manner. Furthermore, the inventory that we access through real-time advertising exchanges may be of low quality or misrepresented to us, despite attempts by us and our suppliers to prevent fraud and conduct quality assurance checks.

Inventory suppliers control the bidding process, rules and procedures for the inventory they supply. Such processes may not always work in our favor or for the benefit of our clients and may create inefficiencies in the supply chain for advertising inventory. Although we have in the past and continue to undertake efforts to address these supply chain inefficiencies, we may not be successful in such efforts. Given the importance of ensuring access to quality inventory for our advertisers, we launched our OpenPath offering in order to give clients a simplified, direct connection to publishers. We have been investing in this offering and plan to continue to grow the amount of OpenPath inventory and publishers available through our platform, but we cannot guarantee that this or future offerings will prove attractive to our clients or otherwise be successful.

As new types of inventory become available, we will need to expend significant resources to ensure we have access to such new inventory. For example, although television advertising is a large market, only a very small percentage of it is currently purchased through digital advertising exchanges. We are investing heavily in our programmatic television offering, including by increasing our workforce and by adding new features, functions and integrations to our platform. If the CTV market does not continue to grow as we anticipate or we fail to successfully serve such market, our growth prospects could be harmed.

Our success depends on consistently adding valued inventory in a cost-effective manner. If we are unable to maintain a consistent supply of quality inventory for any reason, client retention and loyalty, and our financial condition and results of operations could be harmed.

The market in which we participate is intensely competitive, and we may not be able to compete successfully with our current or future competitors.

We operate in a highly competitive and rapidly changing industry. We expect competition to persist and intensify in the future, which could harm our ability to increase revenue and maintain profitability. New technologies and methods of buying advertising present a dynamic competitive challenge, as market participants develop and offer new products and services aimed at capturing advertising spend or disrupting the digital marketing landscape, such as analytics, automated media buying and exchanges.

We may also face competition from new companies entering the market, including large established companies and companies that we do not yet know about or do not yet exist. If existing or new companies develop, market or resell

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competitive high-value products or services that result in additional competition for advertising spend or advertising inventory or if they acquire one of our existing competitors or form a strategic alliance with one of our competitors, our ability to compete effectively could be significantly compromised and our results of operations could be harmed.

Our current and potential competitors may have significantly more financial, technical, marketing, and other resources than we have, which may allow them to devote greater resources to the development, promotion, sale and support of their products and services. They may also have more extensive advertiser bases and broader publisher relationships than we have, rich first-party data sets, may be better positioned to execute on advertising conducted over certain channels, such as social media, mobile, and video and in the case of “walled garden” inventory providers, may exclusively sell their own inventory directly to advertisers, which prevents us from competing with them entirely for such inventory. Some of our competitors may have a longer operating history and greater name recognition. As a result, these competitors may be better able to respond quickly to new technologies, develop superior solutions, develop deeper advertiser relationships or offer services at lower prices. Any of these developments would make it more difficult for us to sell our platform or related offerings and could result in increased pricing pressure, increased development, sales and marketing expense, or the loss of market share.

If we fail to innovate or make the right investment decisions in our platform and related offerings, we may fail to attract and retain advertisers and advertising agencies and our revenue and results of operations may decline.

Our industry is subject to rapid and frequent changes in technology and laws governing our activities, evolving client needs and expectations and the frequent introduction by our competitors of new and enhanced offerings. If new or existing competitors have more attractive offerings, we may lose clients or clients may decrease their use of our platform. New client demands, superior competitive offerings or new industry standards could require us to make unanticipated and costly changes to our platform or business model. We must constantly make investment decisions regarding new and existing offerings and technology to meet client demand and evolving industry and legal standards. We may make bad decisions regarding these investments. Furthermore, even if we believe that our investments improve or supplement our platform and related offerings, such as updates to our various platform features and user interface, they may nevertheless fail to meet new or existing client expectations or preferences, which could result in decreased client adoption or use of our platform.

In addition, as we develop and introduce new offerings, including those incorporating or utilizing artificial intelligence and machine learning and new processing of personal information, including identifiable information, they may raise new, or heighten existing, technological, security, legal and other risks and challenges, which may cause unintended consequences, and they may not function properly or may be misused by our clients. If we fail to adapt to our rapidly changing industry or to evolving client needs or expectations, or we provide new or updated offerings that exacerbate technological, security, legal or other challenges, the reputation of and demand for our platform or related offerings could decrease and our business, financial condition and operations may be adversely affected. In addition to competitive, regulatory and marketplace uncertainties in the ecosystem, we also anticipate that evolution of the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning in digital advertising may create challenges and further ecosystem uncertainty, which can be difficult to predict.

If unauthorized access is obtained to user, client or inventory and third-party provider data, or our platform or related offerings are compromised, our services may be disrupted or perceived as insecure, and as a result, we may lose existing clients or fail to attract new clients, and we may incur significant reputational harm and legal and financial liabilities.

We face various and evolving cybersecurity risks that threaten the confidentiality, integrity and availability of our systems and the data that we process. Our offerings involve the storage and transmission of significant amounts of data from users, clients, and inventory and data providers, a large volume of which is hosted by third-party service providers. Our services and the data on our platform, related offerings and in our systems could be exposed to unauthorized access due to activities that breach or undermine security measures, including: negligence or malfeasance by internal or external actors; attempts by outside parties to fraudulently induce employees, clients or vendors to disclose information or data, including personal information; or errors or vulnerabilities in our systems, offerings or processes or in those of our service providers, clients, and vendors.

For example, from time to time, we experience cyberattacks of varying degrees and other attempts to obtain unauthorized access to our systems, including to employee mailboxes. We have dedicated and expect to continue to dedicate resources toward security protections that shield data from these activities, including worldwide incident response teams and dedicated resources to incident response processes. However, such measures cannot provide absolute security

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and could, among other issues, fail to be adequate or accurately assess the incident severity, not proceed quickly enough, or fail to sufficiently remediate an incident. Further, we can expect that the deployment of techniques to circumvent our security measures may occur with more frequency and sophistication and may not be recognized until launched against a target. Accordingly, we may be unable to anticipate or detect these techniques or to implement adequate preventative measures.

Many of our employees now have a hybrid work schedule consisting of both in-person work and working from home. Although we have implemented work-from-home protocols and provide work-issued devices to employees, the actions of our employees while working from home may have a greater effect on the security of our systems, platform, related offerings and the data we process, including by increasing the risk of compromise to our systems, confidential information or data arising from employees’ combined personal and private use of devices, accessing our systems or data using wireless networks that we do not control or the ability to transmit or store company-controlled data outside of our secured network.

A breach of our security, a flawed design, and/or our failure to respond sufficiently to a security incident could disrupt our services and result in theft, misuse, loss, corruption, or improper use or disclosure of data. This could result in government investigations, lawsuits (including class actions), enforcement actions and other legal and financial liability, and/or loss of confidence in the availability and security of our offerings, all of which could seriously harm our reputation and brand and impair our ability to attract and retain clients. As some of our newer offerings involve the receipt and processing of identifiable information, the risks associated with data, including risks to breach of our systems increases, and we could be subject to contractual breach and indemnification claims from other clients and partners and otherwise suffer damage to our reputation, brand, and business. We could also be required to notify regulators, customers or other third parties. Our platform may also receive data in aggregated or pseudonymized form, and if our systems are breached and such data or information is compromised, it could be damaging to our brand, reputation, and business. Cyberattacks could also compromise our own trade secrets and other confidential information and result in such information being disclosed to others and becoming less valuable, which could negatively affect our business. Although we maintain errors or omissions and cyber liability insurance, the costs related to an incident or other security threats or disruptions may not be fully insured or indemnified by other means and insurance and other safeguards might only partially reimburse us for our losses, if at all. We also cannot guarantee that applicable insurance will be available to us in the future on economically reasonable terms or at all.

Privacy and data protection laws to which we and our clients, inventory partners, and third-party data providers are subject may cause us to incur additional or unexpected costs, subject us to investigations or enforcement actions for alleged compliance failures, result in less demand for our offerings, or cause us to change our platform, related offerings or business model, which may have a material adverse effect on our business.

Information relating to individuals and their devices (commonly called “personal information” or “personal data”) is regulated under a wide variety of local, state, national and international laws and regulations that apply to its collection, use, retention, protection, disclosure, transfer (including transfer across national boundaries) and other processing. We typically collect and store IP addresses and other device identifiers (such as unique cookie identifiers and mobile advertising identifiers), which are or may be considered personal data or personal information in many jurisdictions or otherwise subject to regulation. In connection with certain of our offerings, including Unified ID 2.0, EUID and OpenPass, we receive information that directly identifies individuals, such as email addresses and phone numbers, both directly from consumers and from our clients or others. We deploy technical and security measures, internal policy controls, and contractual measures to limit how such identifying information is used and shared. Nevertheless, we cannot guarantee any such measures or controls will be effective and handling identifying information increases our exposure under privacy and data protection laws. Some of our offerings, including those that entail some use of directly identifying information, may also increase our exposure to potential claims by plaintiffs’ attorneys, including by attempting to apply various legal theories – such as alleging violations of wiretapping statutes – to certain our activities. For example, in March 2025, suits alleging various wiretapping and privacy tort theories were filed against us in the Northern District of California. For additional information regarding the pending legal proceedings, refer to “Item 1. Legal Proceedings.”

The global regulatory landscape regarding the privacy and protection of personal information is evolving, and U.S. (state, federal and local) and foreign governments continue to consider and enact additional legislation and rulemaking related to privacy and data protection, often with a particular focus on intermediaries in the online advertising ecosystem, including those that engage in targeted advertising, “sell” or “share” personal data, and act as “data brokers.” We expect to see an increase in, or changes to, privacy and data protection legislation and regulation in this area for the foreseeable future. For example, the FTC uses its enforcement powers under Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act (the “FTC

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Act”) (which prohibits “unfair” and “deceptive” trade practices) to investigate companies engaging in online tracking. For example, in the preceding few years, the FTC has been very active in bringing enforcement actions against companies that handle personal data it views as sensitive for advertising purposes, including location data brokers and companies that process health-related data. The Commission could continue to build on this trend under its authority to enforce a relatively new federal law focused on disclosures of certain “sensitive” information by companies operating as data brokers to certain restricted countries or entities “controlled” by such countries, and the Department of Justice could act on authority granted under an executive order restricting similar practices, for which regulations and guidance have recently been issued. Other companies in the advertising technology space have been subject to government investigation by regulatory bodies; advocacy organizations have also filed complaints with data protection authorities against advertising technology companies, arguing that certain of these companies’ practices do not comply with data privacy laws, or consumer protection laws such as the FTC Act. As noted above, plaintiffs’ attorneys are also increasingly exploring theories under which to pursue claims against advertising technology companies related to their data collection, use and disclosure practices, as well as advertisers and publishers that rely on services provided by these companies. For example, in March 2025, suits alleging various privacy tort theories were filed against us in the Northern District of California. For additional information regarding the pending legal proceedings, refer to “Item 1. Legal Proceedings.” We cannot avoid the possibility that one of these investigations or enforcement actions will require us to alter our practices. In addition, a potential federal omnibus privacy law remains a possibility. If ultimately passed, such a law would likely substantially impact the online advertising ecosystem.

State lawmakers are also actively addressing consumer data privacy issues. Many states have adopted omnibus consumer privacy laws, a host of which are already enforceable, while others will take effect over the coming years. These state laws define “personal information” broadly enough to include many online identifiers provided by individuals’ devices, applications, and protocols (such as IP addresses, mobile advertising identifiers and unique cookie identifiers), individuals’ location data, and hashed versions of email addresses and phone numbers. These laws generally require covered businesses to meet numerous data privacy-related obligations and establish data privacy rights for consumers in such states (including rights to opt out of certain processing of their personal data and to request correction, deletion of and access to personal data), imposing special rules on the collection of personal data from minors and other personal data deemed “sensitive” under the laws, and creating new notice obligations. Many also impose data minimization requirements, mandating that companies only collect and process data for certain purposes. Most significant for the advertising industry, however, these laws require businesses that engage in certain advertising uses of personal data to offer and honor an opt-out of such activities, including, in some states, through browser or device-based preference signals. (Terminology varies slightly among some of the state laws, tying the opt-out requirement to “targeted advertising,” “sales” or “sharing” of personal data.) Because of these obligations, the availability of data within our platform, our related offerings and the advertising ecosystem more broadly may decline, potentially making our platform and related offerings less valuable to our clients.

The requirement under certain states’ laws to honor users’ requests to opt out of certain disclosures and uses of data for advertising purposes through preference signals, such as the Global Privacy Control (“GPC”) or similar signals, reflects a broader attention that privacy advocates, the media and some government regulators, such as the FTC, have devoted to digital advertising in recent years. If the use of the GPC or similar technical signals is adopted by many Internet users, is imposed by additional states or by federal or foreign legislation or is agreed upon by standard setting groups, we may have to change our business practices, our clients may reduce their use of our platform and related offerings, and our business could be harmed.

These laws and their implementing regulations will likely also increase compliance costs and obligations on us, our clients, and other companies in the advertising industry. Although we have attempted to mitigate certain risks posed by these laws through contractual, platform and offering changes, we cannot predict with certainty the effect of these laws and their implementing regulations, some of which are not yet finalized, on our business, nor the share of consumers who will carry out their opt-out and other rights and how these actions will impact us, our clients, inventory sources, and our industry. Further, enforcement activity under such laws already in effect, particularly in California, reflects an ongoing focus on online advertising activities and signals regulators’ willingness to pursue in-depth investigations and impose substantial penalties on entities allegedly operating in violation of the statute. Thus, we expect that continuing to maintain compliance with states’ varying legal requirements, including monitoring and adjusting to new regulations and interpretations that emerge through enforcement actions, will require significant time, resources, and expense, as will the effort to monitor whether additional changes to our business practices and our backend configuration are needed, all of which may increase operating costs, or limit our ability to operate or expand our business.

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In addition to these broad-based consumer privacy laws, lawmakers and regulators continue to focus on activities that involve use of categories of personal data perceived as especially sensitive, such as health data and children’s data. For example, the FTC has finalized an update to rules adopted pursuant to the Children Online Privacy Protection Act, modifying some requirements relating to the use of children’s data for targeted advertising and several states have enacted laws that would substantially impact activities that involve showing targeted advertisements to individuals under 18 years of age through a variety of new restrictions, or in some cases prohibit it altogether. Further, several states have enacted laws, updated existing laws or have introduced bills to impose new privacy obligations related to health-related personal information beyond that governed by federal and state laws governing medical records and similar information, such as HIPAA. For example, Washington’s My Health, My Data Act (“MHMD”) introduced a host of requirements related to a very broadly-defined notion of consumer health data that impacts the advertising industry in part because MHMD is subject to a private right of action (unlike most other state privacy laws), so plaintiffs’ attorneys could explore claims that stretch the bounds of the law’s text. A somewhat similar law recently enacted in Virginia also contains a private right of action. These laws and the heightened scrutiny associated with the enforcement of such laws may, in turn, ultimately lead to increased compliance and defense costs, and more obligations on us, our clients and other companies in the advertising industry.

Laws governing the processing of personal data in Europe (including the U.K. and EEA) also continue to impact us and continue to evolve. For example, the GDPR defines “personal data” broadly and enhances data protection obligations for controllers of such data and for service providers processing the data. It also provides certain rights, such as access and deletion, to the individuals about whom the personal data relates. IAB Europe previously collaborated with the digital advertising industry to create a user-facing framework (the Transparency and Control Framework, or “TCF”) for establishing and managing legal bases under the GDPR and other U.K. and EU privacy laws including the ePrivacy Directive. Although the TCF is actively in use, its viability as a compliance mechanism remains under review by European authorities and we cannot predict its effectiveness over the long term. Because we are under the supervision of relevant data protection authorities in both the EEA and the U.K., we may be fined under both the EU GDPR and the UK GDPR for the same breach, with penalties up to the greater of €20 million/BP 17.5 million or 4% of total worldwide annual turnover. In addition to fines, breach of the GDPR can also result in regulatory investigations, enforcement notices, and civil claims. Continuing to maintain compliance with the requirements of the GDPR, including monitoring and adjusting to rulings and interpretations that affect our approach to compliance, requires significant time, resources and expense, as will the effort to monitor whether additional changes to our business practices and our backend configuration are needed, all of which may increase operating costs, or limit our ability to operate or expand our business.

Data residency and cross-border transfer restrictions also impact our operations. For the transfer of personal data from Europe to the U.S., we rely upon, and are certified under, the EU-U.S. and Swiss-U.S. Data Privacy Frameworks (“DPF”) and the U.K. extension to the EU-U.S. DPF. The DPF replaced the Privacy Shield Framework as an adequate mechanism by which EU companies may pass personal data to the U.S. However, the DPF is already subject to legal challenge in Europe. Relatedly, whether and how other transfer mechanisms, such as standard contractual clauses, can be used to transfer personal data to the U.S. is in question. While the adequacy decision for the DPF helps to reduce the legal uncertainty of cross-border transfers of personal data, the long-term validity of these transfer mechanisms remains uncertain. If all or some jurisdictions within the EU or the U.K. determine that the latest standard contractual clauses also cannot be used to transfer personal data to the U.S. and if the DPF is ultimately struck down in a manner similar to the Privacy Shield Framework, we could be left with no reasonable option for the lawful cross-border transfer of personal data. In such circumstances, continuing to transfer personal data from the EU to the U.S. could lead to governmental enforcement actions, litigation, fines and penalties or adverse publicity. As the regulatory guidance and enforcement landscape in relation to data transfers continue to develop, we could suffer additional costs, complaints or regulatory investigations or fines; we may have to stop using certain tools and vendors and make other operational changes; we may have to implement alternative data transfer mechanisms under the GDPR or take additional compliance and operational measures, such as establishing systems to maintain certain data in the EEA, potentially involving substantial expense and causing us to divert resources from other aspects of our operations, all of which may adversely affect our business. Other jurisdictions have adopted or are considering cross-border or data residency restrictions, which could reduce the amount of data we can collect or process and, as a result, significantly impact our business.

Further, our legal risk depends in part on our clients’ or other third parties’ adherence to data privacy laws and regulations and their use of our services in ways consistent with end user expectations. There can be no assurances that the privacy and security-related measures and safeguards we have put into place in relation to these third parties will be effective to protect us and/or the relevant personal information from the risks associated with the third-party processing of such data. We rely on representations made to us by clients, partners and providers that they will comply with all applicable laws, including all relevant data privacy and data protection regulations. Although we make reasonable efforts to enforce

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such representations and contractual requirements, we do not fully audit our clients’ compliance with our recommended disclosures or their adherence to data privacy laws and regulations. If our clients, partners or providers fail to adhere to our expectations or contracts in this regard, we and our clients could be subject to adverse publicity, damages and related possible investigation or other regulatory activity.

Adapting our business to enhanced and evolving privacy obligations across relevant jurisdictions could continue to involve substantial expense and may cause us to divert resources from other aspects of our operations, all of which may adversely affect our business. Additionally, as the advertising industry evolves, and new ways of collecting, combining and using data are created, governments may enact legislation and plaintiffs may explore novel legal theories that could result in us deciding to re-design features or functions of our platform and related offerings, therefore incurring unexpected compliance costs. Further, adaptation of the digital advertising marketplace requires increasingly significant collaboration between participants in the market, such as publishers and advertisers. Failure of the industry to adapt to changes required for operating under existing and future data privacy laws, industry approaches that disfavor our platform and related offerings, and user response to such changes could negatively impact inventory, data, and demand. We cannot control or predict the pace or effectiveness of such adaptation, and we cannot currently predict the impact such changes may have on our business.

In addition to laws regulating the processing of personal data, we, our advertisers, and publishers are also subject to regulation with respect to political advertising activities, which are governed by various federal and state laws in the United States, and national and provincial laws worldwide. Online political advertising laws are rapidly evolving and, in certain jurisdictions, impose varying substantive transparency and disclosure requirements on advertisers, publishers, and/or others in the ecosystem. Concerns about political advertising or other advertising in areas deemed sensitive, whether or not valid and whether or not driven by applicable laws and regulations, industry standards, client or inventory provider expectations, or public perception, may harm our reputation, result in loss of goodwill, and inhibit use of our platform by current and future clients.

We deploy technical and organizational measures, internal policy controls, and contractual measures to limit how identifying information is used and shared and to help honor consumer choices. Nevertheless, we cannot guarantee any such measures or controls will be effective and handling identifying information increases our exposure under privacy and data protection laws. These laws and other obligations may be interpreted and applied in a manner that is inconsistent with our existing data management practices or the features of our platform and related offerings. If so, in addition to the possibility of fines, lawsuits and other claims, we could be required to fundamentally change our business activities and practices or modify our offerings, which could have an adverse effect on our business. In addition, public perception regarding data protection and privacy are significant in the programmatic advertising buying industry. Concerns about industry practices regarding the collection, use, and disclosure of personal data, whether or not valid and whether driven by applicable laws and regulations, industry standards, client or inventory provider expectations, or the broader public, may harm our reputation, result in loss of goodwill, and inhibit use of our platform or related offerings by current and future clients. For example, perception that our practices involve an invasion of privacy or are designed with insufficient protections, whether or not such practices are consistent with current or future laws, regulations, or industry practices, may subject us to public criticism, additional private class actions, reputational harm, or claims by regulators, which could disrupt our business and expose us to increased liability. We may be unable to make changes and modifications to our business and offerings in a commercially reasonable manner or at all, and our ability to develop new offerings or certain features could be limited. All of this could impair our or our clients’ ability to collect, use, or disclose information relating to consumers, which could decrease demand for our platform and related offerings, increase our costs, and impair our ability to maintain and grow our client base and increase our revenue.

Third parties control our access to unique identifiers, and if the use of “third-party cookies” or other technology to uniquely identify devices or users is rejected by Internet users, restricted or otherwise subject to unfavorable regulation, blocked or limited by preference signals, technical changes on end users’ devices and web browsers, or our clients’ ability to use data, including on our platform or related offerings is otherwise restricted, our performance may decline, and we may lose advertisers and revenue.

Our ability to successfully leverage user data and generate revenue from opportunities to serve advertisements could be impacted by restrictions imposed by laws or by third parties, including restrictions on our ability to use or read cookies, device identifiers, or other tracking features or our ability to use real-time bidding networks or other bidding networks. For example, if publishers or supply-side platforms decide to limit the data that we receive in order to comply (in their view) with state privacy laws, a potential federal privacy law, or in response to other legal or industry development then our service may prove to be less valuable to our clients and we may find it more difficult to generate revenue. That is,

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if third parties on which we rely for data or opportunities to serve advertisements impose limitations (for whatever reason) or are restricted by other ecosystem participants or applicable regulations, then we may lose the ability to access data, bid on opportunities or purchase digital ad space, which could have a substantial impact on our revenue.

Digital advertising mostly relies on the ability to uniquely identify devices or users across websites and applications, and to collect data about user interactions for purposes such as serving relevant ads and measuring the effectiveness of ads. Devices are identified through unique identifiers stored in cookies (and similar technologies), provided by device operating systems for advertising purposes, or are generated based on statistical algorithms applied to information about a device, such as the IP address and device type. We use device and other identifiers to record information such as when an Internet user views an ad, clicks on an ad, or visits one of our advertiser’s websites or applications. We also use device and other identifiers to help us achieve our advertisers’ campaign goals, including to limit the instances that an Internet user sees the same advertisement, report information to our advertisers regarding the performance of their advertising campaigns, and detect and prevent malicious behavior and invalid traffic throughout our network of inventory. We also use data associated with device and other identifiers to help our clients decide whether to bid on, and how to price, an opportunity to place an advertisement in a specific location, at a given time, in front of a particular Internet user. Additionally, our clients rely on device and other identifiers to add information they have collected or acquired about users into our platform. Without such data, our clients may not have sufficient insight into an Internet user’s activity, which may compromise their and our ability to determine which inventory to purchase for a specific campaign and may undermine the effectiveness of our platform or our ability to improve our platform and remain competitive.

Today, digital advertising, including our platform, makes significant use of cookies to store device identifiers for the advertising activities described above. When we use cookies, they are generally considered third-party cookies, which are cookies owned and used by parties other than the owners of the website visited by the Internet user. The most commonly used Internet browsers—Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer and Safari—allow Internet users to modify their browser settings to prevent some or all cookies from being accepted by their browsers. Internet users can delete cookies from their computers at any time. Additionally, some browsers currently, or may in the future, block or limit some third-party cookies by default or may implement user control settings that algorithmically block or limit some cookies. Today, three major web browsers—Apple’s Safari, Mozilla’s Firefox and Microsoft’s Edge—block third-party cookies by default. Google’s web browser, Chrome, has introduced, and is likely to continue to introduce, controls over third-party cookies. However, on April 22, 2025, Google announced that it would maintain its current approach to offering users third-party cookie choice in Chrome (thus, presumably, ending its efforts to deprecate third-party cookies in the Chrome browser), and will not be rolling out a new standalone prompt for third-party cookies in Chrome. Although we believe our platform is well-positioned to adapt to such changes, particularly with our Unified ID 2.0 offering, the impact of such changes — and broader scrutiny on the advertising technology ecosystem — remains uncertain and could be more disruptive than we anticipate, including to the display advertising ecosystem in particular, where such changes could adversely impact our growth in that channel.

Some Internet users also download free or paid ad-blocking software that not only prevents third-party cookies from being stored on a user’s computer, but also blocks all interaction with a third-party ad server. In addition, Google has introduced ad-blocking software in its Chrome web browser that will block certain ads based on quality standards established under a multi-stakeholder coalition. If such a feature inadvertently or mistakenly blocks ads that are not within the established blocking standards, or if such capabilities become widely adopted and the advertising technology industry does not collaboratively develop alternative technologies, our business could be harmed. The Interactive Advertising Bureau and Digital Advertising Alliance have also developed frameworks that allow users to opt out of the “sale” or use of their personal data for targeted advertising purposes under U.S. state privacy laws in ways that stop or severely limit the ability to show targeted ads. Because many state privacy laws require businesses to permit end users to opt out of processing their personal data for purposes of targeted advertising, including, in some states, through automated signals, we expect that more opt-out solutions will become available that may ultimately be used by end users, which may reduce our clients’ use of our platform and related offerings, and our business, financial condition, and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Advertising shown on mobile applications can also be affected by blocking or restricting use of mobile device identifiers. Data regarding interactions between users and devices are tracked mostly through stable, pseudonymous advertising identifiers that are built into the device operating system with privacy controls that allow users to express a preference with respect to data collection for advertising, including to disable the identifier. These identifiers and privacy controls are defined by the developers of the platforms through which the applications are accessed and could be changed by the platforms in a way that may negatively impact our business. For example, Apple has shifted to require user opt-in

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before permitting access to Apple’s unique advertising identifier, or IDFA, and Google has announced that it will eventually deprecate the mobile advertising identifier used on Android devices entirely. These changes have had, and will likely continue to have, a substantial impact on the mobile advertising ecosystem and could adversely impact our growth in this channel.

In addition, in the EU and UK, national laws derived from Directive 2002/58/EC (as amended by Directive 2009/136/EC), commonly referred to as the ePrivacy or Cookie Directive, provide that accessing information on an Internet user’s computer, such as through a cookie and other similar technologies, is allowed only if the Internet user has been informed about such access and given his or her consent. Recent European court and regulator decisions are driving increased attention to cookies and similar tracking technologies. We may be required to, or otherwise may determine that it is advisable to, make significant changes in our business operations and offerings to obtain user opt-in for cookies and use of cookie data, or develop or obtain additional tools and technologies to compensate for a lack of cookie data.

Increased transparency and scrutiny regarding the collection and use of data for digital advertising, introduced both through features in browsers and devices and regulatory requirements, such as the GDPR, U.S. state privacy laws and regulations, “Global Privacy Control” or similar opt-out signals and the ePrivacy Directive, as well as compliance with such requirements, may create operational burdens to implement and may lead more users to choose to block the collection and use of data about them. Adapting to these and similar changes has in the past and may in the future require significant time, resources and expense, which may increase our cost of operation or limit our ability to operate or expand our business.

We may experience fluctuations in our results of operations, which could make our future results of operations difficult to predict or cause our results of operations to fall below analysts’ and investors’ expectations.

Our quarterly and annual results of operations have fluctuated in the past and we expect our future results of operations to fluctuate due to a variety of factors, many of which are beyond our control. Fluctuations in our results of operations could cause our performance to fall below the expectations of analysts and investors, and adversely affect the price of our common stock. Because our business is changing and evolving rapidly, our historical results of operations may not be necessarily indicative of our future results of operations. Factors that may cause our results of operations to fluctuate include the following:

•changes in demand for programmatic advertising and for our platform, including those related to the seasonal nature of our clients’ spend on digital advertising campaigns;

•changes to availability of and pricing of competitive products and services, and their effects on our pricing;

•changes in the pricing, cost or availability of supplier-provided components of value-added services and data, including pricing structure changes and the alignment of our pricing model with our data partners;

•changes in our platform or related offerings, their features, and the mix of offerings that are adopted by our clients;

•the addition or loss of advertising agencies and advertisers as clients and other changes in our client base;

•changes in advertising budget allocations, agency affiliations or marketing strategies;

•changes to our media, client or channel mix;

•changes and uncertainty in the regulatory environment for us, advertisers, inventory providers, or others in the advertising industry, and the effects of our efforts and those of our clients and partners to address changes and uncertainty in the regulatory environment;

•changes in the economic prospects of advertisers or the economy generally, which could alter advertisers’ budgets or spend priorities, or could increase the time or costs required to complete advertising inventory sales;

•changes in the pricing and availability of advertising inventory, including through real-time advertising exchanges or in the cost of reaching end consumers through digital advertising;

•disruptions, outages, vulnerabilities or technological issues uncovered on our platform or related offerings;

•factors beyond our control, such as natural disasters, terrorism, war and public health crises;

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•the introduction of new technologies or offerings by our competitors or others in the advertising marketplace;

•changes in our capital expenditures as we acquire the hardware, equipment and other assets required to support our business;

•timing differences between our payments for advertising inventory and our collection of related advertising revenue;

•the length and unpredictability of our sales cycle;

•costs related to acquisitions of businesses or technologies and development of new offerings;

•cost of employee recruiting and retention; and

•changes to the cost of infrastructure, including real estate and information technology.

Based upon the factors above and others beyond our control, we have a limited ability to forecast our future revenue, costs and expenses. If we fail to meet or exceed the operating results expectations of analysts and investors or if analysts and investors have estimates and forecasts of our future performance that are unrealistic or that we do not meet, the market price of our common stock could decline. In addition, if one or more of the analysts who cover us adversely change their recommendation regarding our stock, the market price of our common stock could decline. In the past, companies that have experienced volatility in the market price of their stock have been subject to securities litigation. We may be the target of this type of litigation in the future, which could result in substantial costs and divert our management’s attention from other business concerns.

Operational performance and internal control issues may adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations and subject us to liability.

Our platform and related offerings are complex and proprietary, and we rely on the expertise of members of our engineering, operations and software development teams for their continued performance. Operational, performance and internal control issues may arise due to a variety of factors, including infrastructure changes, introductions of new functionality, human or software errors and other internal and external variables. Such issues have caused errors, failures, design flaws, vulnerabilities and bugs in the past and may again in the future. We also rely on third-party technology and systems to perform properly, which are often used in connection with computing environments utilizing different operating systems, system management software, equipment and networking configurations, which may cause errors in, or failures of, our platform and related offerings or such other computing environments. Operational, performance and internal control issues with our platform and related offerings, which we may experience and have experienced in the past, could include the failure of our user interface, outages, errors, discrepancies in costs billed versus costs paid, unauthorized bidding, cessation of our ability to bid or deliver impressions, deletion of our reporting information, unanticipated volume overwhelming our databases, server failure or catastrophic events affecting one or more server farms.

Operational, performance, design, and internal control issues with our platform and related offerings, whether real or perceived, could also result in negative publicity, damage to our brand and reputation, government investigations, loss of clients, loss of data, loss of or delay in market acceptance or market share of our platform or related offerings, increased costs or loss of revenue, loss of the ability to access our platform or related offerings, loss of competitive position, claims by clients for losses sustained by them and loss of stockholder confidence in the accuracy and completeness of our financial reports. Alleviating problems resulting from such issues could require significant expenditures of capital and other resources and could cause interruptions, delays or the cessation of our business, any of which may adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may experience outages, disruptions and malfunctions on our platform and related offerings if we fail to maintain adequate security and supporting infrastructure and processes, which may harm our reputation and negatively impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

As we expand our offerings, which in some instances involves ingesting more identifiable information, the consequences of potential security vulnerabilities become more significant for our business. We expect to continue to invest in technology and security services, equipment, and expertise, including engineers, data centers, network services and database technologies, as well as potentially increase our reliance on open source software. Without these improvements, our operations might suffer from security vulnerabilities or misuse, system disruptions, data loss, slow transaction processing, unreliable service levels, impaired quality or delays in reporting accurate information regarding

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transactions in our platform, any of which could negatively affect our financial condition, reputation and ability to attract and retain clients. In addition, the expansion and improvement of our systems and infrastructure may require us to commit substantial financial, operational and technical resources, with no assurance our business will increase. If we fail to respond to technological change or to adequately maintain, protect, expand, upgrade and develop our systems and infrastructure in a timely fashion, our growth prospects and results of operations could be adversely affected. The steps we take to increase the reliability, integrity and security of our platform and related offerings as they scale are expensive and complex, and our execution could result in operational failures and increased vulnerability to cyberattacks. Such cyberattacks could include denial-of-service attacks impacting service availability (including the ability to deliver ads) and reliability, tricking company employees into releasing control of their systems to a hacker, or the introduction of computer viruses or malware into our systems with a view to steal confidential or proprietary data. Cyberattacks of increasing sophistication may be difficult to detect and could result in the theft of our intellectual property and data, including personal information. We are also vulnerable to unintentional errors or malicious or improper actions by persons with authorized access to our systems that exceed the scope of their access rights, distribute data erroneously, or, unintentionally or intentionally, interfere with the intended operations and functioning of our platform and related offerings. Moreover, we could be adversely impacted by outages and disruptions in the online platforms of our inventory and data suppliers, such as real-time advertising exchanges. Misuse, vulnerabilities, outages and disruptions of our platform and related offerings, including due to cyberattacks, may require engagement with regulators or lead to legal actions, and may harm our reputation and negatively impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Advertising technology industry self-regulation may lead to investigation by government or self-regulatory bodies, government or private litigation, and operational costs or harm to reputation or brand.

In addition to laws, the online advertising ecosystem is subject to best practices and self-regulatory standards, such as those promulgated by the Network Advertising Initiative and the Digital Advertising Alliance, and similar organizations in Europe and Canada. If we or our clients or partners make mistakes in the implementation of these principles, if self-regulatory bodies expand these guidelines, if government authorities issue different guidelines regarding targeted advertising, if litigation results in changes to industry practices, if opt out mechanisms fail to work as designed, or if Internet users misunderstand our technology or our commitments with respect to these principles, we could be subject to negative publicity, government investigation, government or private litigation or investigation by self-regulatory bodies or other accountability groups. Any such action against us, or investigations, even if meritless, could be costly and time consuming, require us to change our business practices, cause us to divert management’s attention and our resources and be damaging to our brand, reputation and business. In addition, privacy advocates, plaintiffs’ attorneys and industry groups may advance new and different standards that either legally or contractually apply to us. We cannot yet determine the impact such future standards may have on our business.

Our future success depends on the continuing efforts of our key employees, including Jeff T. Green, and our ability to attract, hire, retain and motivate highly skilled employees in the future.

Our future success depends on the continuing efforts of our executive officers and other key employees, including Jeff T. Green, our founder and Chief Executive Officer. We rely on the leadership, knowledge and experience that our executive officers provide. They foster our corporate culture, which has been instrumental to our ability to attract and retain new talent. We also rely on our ability to hire and retain qualified and motivated employees, particularly those employees in our product development, support and sales teams that attract and keep key clients.

The market for talent in many of our areas of operations, including California and New York, is intensely competitive, as technology companies like ours compete to attract the best talent. As a business-to-business company, we do not have the same level of name recognition among potential recruits as business-to-consumer companies. Additionally, we have less experience with recruiting and less name recognition in geographies outside of the United States and may face additional challenges in attracting and retaining international employees. In addition, many companies now offer a remote or hybrid work environment, which may increase the competition for employees from employers outside of our traditional office locations. As a result, we may incur increasingly significant costs to attract and retain employees, including significant expenditures related to salaries and benefits and compensation expenses related to equity awards, and we may lose new employees to our competitors or other companies before we realize the benefit of our investment in recruiting and training them.

Employee turnover, including changes in our management team or failure to manage executive succession effectively, could disrupt our business. None of our key employees have an employment agreement for a specific term, and all of our employees may terminate their employment with us at any time. The loss of one or more of our executive officers

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or our inability to attract and retain highly skilled employees could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our failure to meet standards and provide services that our advertisers and inventory suppliers trust, could harm our brand and reputation and those of our partners and negatively impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We do not provide or control the content of the advertisements that we serve or the content of the websites providing the inventory. Advertisers provide the advertising content and inventory suppliers provide the inventory. Both advertisers and inventory suppliers are concerned about being associated with content they consider inappropriate, competitive or inconsistent with their brands or illegal, and they are hesitant to spend money or make inventory available, respectively, without some guarantee of brand security. Consequently, our reputation depends in part on providing services that our advertisers and inventory suppliers trust, and we have contractual obligations to meet content and inventory standards. We contractually prohibit the misuse of our platform by our clients and inventory suppliers. Additionally, we use our proprietary technology and third-party services to, and we participate in industry co-ops that work to, detect malware and other content issues as well as click fraud (whether by humans or software known as “bots”) and to block fraudulent inventory, including “tool bar” inventory, which is inventory that appears within an application and displaces any advertising that would otherwise be displayed on the website. Despite such efforts, our clients may inadvertently purchase inventory that proves to be unacceptable for their campaigns, in which case we may not be able to recoup the amounts paid to inventory suppliers. Preventing and combating fraud is an industry-wide issue that requires constant vigilance, and we cannot guarantee that we will be successful in our efforts. Our clients could intentionally run campaigns that do not meet the standards of our inventory suppliers or attempt to use illegal or unethical targeting practices or seek to display advertising in jurisdictions that do not permit such advertising or in which the regulatory environment is uncertain, in which case our supply of ad inventory from such suppliers could be jeopardized. Some of our competitors undertake human review of content, but because our platform is self-service, and because such means are cost-intensive, we do not utilize all means available to decrease these risks. We may provide access to inventory that is objectionable to our advertisers, serve advertising that contains malware, objectionable content, or is based on questionable targeting criteria to our inventory suppliers, or be unable to detect and prevent non-human traffic, any one of which could harm our or our clients’ brand and reputation, decrease their trust in our platform, and negatively impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Seasonal fluctuations in advertising activity could have a negative impact on our revenue, cash flow and results of operations.

Our revenue, cash flow, results of operations and other key operating and performance metrics may vary from quarter to quarter due to the seasonal nature of our clients’ spend on advertising campaigns. For example, clients tend to devote more of their advertising budgets to the fourth calendar quarter to coincide with consumer holiday spending. Moreover, advertising inventory in the fourth quarter may be more expensive due to increased demand for it. Political advertising could also cause our revenue to increase during election cycles and decrease during other periods. Our historical revenue growth has lessened the impact of seasonality; however, seasonality could have a more significant impact on our revenue, cash flow and results of operations from period to period if our growth rate declines, if seasonal spend becomes more pronounced, or if seasonality otherwise differs from our expectations.

If we fail to offer sufficient client training and support, our business and reputation would suffer.

Because we offer a self-service platform with many proprietary and complex tools and functionalities, client training and support is important for the successful marketing and full utilization of our platform and for maintaining and increasing spend through our platform from existing and new clients. Providing this training and support requires that our platform operations personnel have specific domain knowledge and expertise along with the ability to train others, which makes it more difficult for us to hire qualified personnel and to scale up our support operations due to the extensive training required. The importance of high-quality client service will increase as we expand our business and pursue new clients. If we are not responsive and proactive regarding our clients’ advertising needs, or do not provide effective support for our clients’ advertising campaigns, our ability to retain our existing clients would suffer and our reputation with existing or potential clients would be harmed, which would negatively impact our business.

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Failure to manage our growth effectively could cause our business to suffer and have an adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

We have experienced and continue to experience significant growth in a short period of time. To manage our growth effectively, we must continually evaluate and evolve our organization. We must also manage our employees, operations, finances, technology and development and capital investments efficiently. Our efficiency, productivity and the quality of our platform and client service may be adversely impacted if we do not train our new personnel, particularly our sales and support personnel, quickly and effectively, or if we fail to appropriately coordinate across our organization. Additionally, our rapid growth may place a strain on our resources, infrastructure and ability to maintain the quality of our platform and related offerings. Our revenue growth and levels of profitability in recent periods should not be considered as indicative of future performance. In future periods, our revenue or profitability could decline or grow more slowly than we expect. Failure to manage our growth effectively could cause our business to suffer and have an adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

As our costs increase, we may not be able to generate sufficient revenue to sustain profitability.

We have expended significant resources to grow our business in recent years by improving and expanding our offerings, increasing our number of employees and growing internationally. Supporting our continued growth may require substantial financial and other resources to, among other things:

•develop our platform and related offerings, including by investing in our engineering team, creating, acquiring or licensing new offerings or certain features, and improving the availability and security of our platform and related offerings;

•continue to expand internationally by growing our sales force and client services team in an effort to increase our client base and spend through our platform, and by adding inventory and data from countries our clients are seeking;

•improve our technology infrastructure, including investing in internal technology development and acquiring outside technologies;

•expand our platform’s reach in new and growing channels such as CTV, including expanding the supply of CTV inventory;

•cover general and administrative expenses, including legal, accounting and other expenses necessary to support a larger organization;

•cover sales and marketing expenses, including a significant expansion of our direct sales organization;

•cover expenses relating to data collection and use and consumer privacy compliance, including additional infrastructure, certain features, security, automation and personnel; and

•explore strategic acquisitions.

Investing in the foregoing, however, may not yield anticipated returns. Consequently, as our costs increase, we may not be able to generate sufficient revenue to sustain profitability.

We often have long sales cycles, which can result in significant time between initial contact with a prospect and execution of a client agreement, making it difficult to project when, if at all, we will obtain new clients and when we will generate revenue from those clients.

Our sales cycle for our platform and related offerings, from initial contact to contract execution and implementation, can take significant time. Our sales efforts involve educating our clients about the use, technical capabilities and benefits of our platform and related offerings. Some of our clients undertake an evaluation process that frequently involves not only our platform but also the offerings of our competitors. As a result, it is difficult to predict when we will obtain new clients and begin generating revenue from these new clients. Even if our sales efforts result in obtaining a new client, under our usage-based pricing model, the client controls when and to what extent it uses our platform. As a result, we may not be able to add clients or generate revenue as quickly as we may expect, which could harm our revenue growth rates.

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We are subject to payment-related risks that may adversely affect our business, working capital, financial condition and results of operations, including from advertising agencies that do not pay us until they receive payment from their advertisers and from clients that dispute or do not pay their invoices.

Spend on our platform primarily comes through our agency clients. Many of our contracts with advertising agencies provide that if the advertiser does not pay the agency, the agency is not liable to us, and we must seek payment solely from the advertiser, a type of arrangement called sequential liability. Contracting with these agencies, which in some cases have or may develop higher-risk credit profiles, may subject us to greater credit risk than if we were to contract directly with advertisers. This credit risk may vary depending on the nature of an advertising agency’s aggregated advertiser base. In addition, typically, we are contractually required to pay advertising inventory and data suppliers within a negotiated period of time, regardless of whether our clients pay us on time, or at all. In addition, we typically experience slow payment cycles by advertising agencies as is common in our industry. While we attempt to negotiate long payment periods with our suppliers and shorter periods from our clients, we are not always successful. As a result, we often face a timing issue with our accounts payable on shorter cycles than our accounts receivables, requiring us to remit payments from our own funds, and accept the risk of credit loss.

This collections and payments cycle may increasingly consume working capital if we continue to be successful in growing our business. If we are unable to borrow on commercially acceptable terms, our working capital availability could be reduced, and as a consequence, our financial condition and results of operations would be adversely impacted.

We may also be involved in disputes with clients, and in the case of agencies, their advertisers, over the operation of our platform, the terms of our agreements or our billings for purchases made by them through our platform. If we are unable to resolve disputes with our clients, we may lose clients or clients may decrease their use of our platform and our financial performance and growth may be adversely affected. If we are unable to collect or make adjustments to bills to clients, we could incur write-offs for credit loss, which could harm our results of operations. In the future, credit loss may exceed reserves for such contingencies and our credit loss exposure may increase over time. Any increase in write-offs for credit loss could harm our business, financial condition and results of operations. Even if we are not paid by our clients on time or at all, we are still obligated to pay suppliers for the cost of advertising inventory, value-added services and data that clients purchase on our platform, and as a consequence, our business, financial condition and results of operations would be adversely impacted.

The effects of health epidemics have had, and could in the future have, an adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our business and operations have been, and could in the future be, adversely affected by health epidemics. The COVID-19 pandemic and efforts to control its spread curtailed the movement of people, goods and services worldwide, including in the regions in which we and our clients and partners operate, and significantly impacted economic activity and financial markets. Many marketers decreased or paused their advertising spend as a response to the economic uncertainty, decline in business activity and other COVID-19-related impacts, which negatively impacted, and with respect to other future health epidemics, may negatively impact, our revenue and results of operations, the extent and duration of which we may not be able to accurately predict.

The economic uncertainty caused by future health epidemics may make it difficult for us to forecast revenue and operating results and to make decisions regarding operational cost structures and investments. The duration and extent of the impact from future health epidemics or other health events depend on future developments that cannot be accurately predicted at this time, including measures taken by governments, businesses and other organizations in response to such epidemic or other public health event, and if we are not able to respond to and manage the impact of such events effectively, our business may be harmed.

If the non-proprietary technology, software, products and services that we use are unavailable, have future terms we cannot agree to, or do not perform as we expect, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be harmed.

We depend on various technology, software, products and services from third parties or available as open source, including data centers and API technology, payment processing, payroll and other technology and professional services, some of which are critical to the features and functionality of our platform. For example, in order for clients to target ads in ways they desire and otherwise optimize and verify campaigns, our platform must have access to data regarding Internet user behavior and reports with demographic information regarding Internet users. Identifying, negotiating, complying with and integrating with third-party terms and technology are complex, costly and time-consuming matters. Failure by third-

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party providers to maintain, support or secure their technology either generally or for our accounts specifically, or downtime, errors or defects in their products or services, could adversely impact our platform, our administrative obligations or other areas of our business. Having to replace any third-party providers or their technology, products or services could result in outages or difficulties in our ability to provide our services. If we are unsuccessful in establishing or maintaining our relationships with our third-party providers or otherwise need to replace them, internal resources may need to be diverted and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be harmed.

Disruptions to service from our third-party data center hosting facilities and cloud computing and hosting providers could impair the delivery of our services and harm our business.

A significant portion of our business relies upon hardware and services that are hosted, managed and controlled by third-party co-location providers for our data centers, and we are dependent on these third parties to provide continuous power, cooling, Internet connectivity and physical and technological security for our servers. In the event that these third-party providers experience any interruption in operations or cease business for any reason, or if we are unable to agree on satisfactory terms for continued hosting relationships, we would be forced to enter into a relationship with other service providers or assume some hosting responsibilities ourselves. Even a disruption as brief as a few minutes could have a negative impact on marketplace activities and could result in a loss of revenue. These facilities may be located in areas prone to natural disasters and may experience catastrophic events such as earthquakes, fires, floods, power loss, telecommunications failures, public health crises and similar events. They may also be subject to break-ins, sabotage, intentional acts of vandalism, cyberattacks and similar misconduct. Although we have made certain disaster recovery and business continuity arrangements, such events could cause damage to, or failure of, our systems generally, or those of the third-party cloud computing and hosting providers, which could result in disruptions to our service.

We face potential liability and harm to our business based on the human factor of inputting information into our platform.

Campaigns are set up using several variables available to our clients on our platform. While our platform includes several checks and balances, it is possible for human error to result in significant overspending. The system requires a daily cap at the ad group level. We also provide for the client to input daily and overall caps at the advertising inventory campaign level at their discretion. Additionally, we set a credit limit for each user so that they cannot spend beyond the level of credit risk we are willing to accept. Despite these protections, the ability for overspend exists. For example, campaigns which last for a period of time can be set to pace evenly or as quickly as possible. If a client with a high credit limit enters the wrong daily cap with a campaign set to a rapid pace, it is possible for a campaign to accidently go significantly over budget. While our client contracts state that clients are responsible for media purchased through our platform, we are ultimately responsible for paying the inventory providers, and we may be unable to collect from clients facing such issues, in which case our results of operations would be harmed.

We have international operations and plan to continue expanding abroad where we have more limited operating experience, which may subject us to additional cost and economic risks that can adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our international operations and expansion plans create challenges associated with supporting a rapidly growing business across a multitude of cultures, customs, monetary, legal and regulatory systems and commercial infrastructures. We have a limited operating history outside of the United States, and our ability to manage and expand our business and conduct our operations internationally requires considerable attention and resources.

We have personnel in countries within North America, Central America, Europe, Asia and Australia, and we are continuing to expand our international operations. Some of the countries into which we are, or potentially may, expand score unfavorably on the Corruption Perceptions Index (“CPI”) of the Transparency International. Our teams in locations outside the United States are substantially smaller than some of our teams in the United States. To the extent we are unable to effectively engage with non-U.S. advertising agencies or international divisions of U.S. agencies due to our limited sales force capacity, or we are unable to secure quality non-U.S. ad inventory and data on reasonable terms due to our limited inventory and data team capacity, we may be unable to effectively grow in international markets.

Our international operations and expansion subject us to a variety of additional risks, including:

•risks related to local advertising markets, where adoption of programmatic ad buying may be slower than in the United States, advertising buyers and inventory and data providers may be less familiar with demand-side platforms and our brand, and business models may not support our value proposition;

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•exposure to public health issues and to travel restrictions and other measures undertaken by governments in response to such issues;

•risks related to compliance with local laws and regulations, including those relating to privacy, cybersecurity, data security, antitrust, data localization, anti-bribery, import and export controls, economic sanctions (including to existing and potential partners and clients), tax and withholding (including overlapping of different tax regimes), and varied labor and employment laws (including those relating to termination of employees); corporate formation, partnership, restrictions on foreign ownership or investment and other regulatory limitations or obligations on our operations (such as obtaining requisite licenses or other governmental requirements); and the increased administrative costs and risks associated with such compliance;

•operational and execution risk, and other challenges caused by distance, language and cultural differences, which may burden management, increase travel, infrastructure and legal compliance costs, and add complexity to our enforcement of advertising standards across languages and countries;

•geopolitical and social factors, such as concerns regarding negative, unstable or changing economic conditions in the countries and regions where we operate, recessions, armed conflicts and wars, political instability and trade disputes;

•risks related to pricing structure, payment and currency, including aligning our pricing model and payment terms with local norms, higher levels of credit risk and payment fraud, difficulties in invoicing and collecting in foreign currencies and associated foreign currency exposure, and difficulties in repatriating or transferring funds from or converting currencies; and

•reduced protection for intellectual property rights in some countries and practical difficulties in enforcing contractual and intellectual property rights abroad.

We have a U.K. entity through which we have entered into international client and partner agreements, including with those in the EU, which are governed by English Law, and some of our clients and partners pay us in British Pounds and Euros.

We may incur significant operating expenses as a result of our international operations and expansion, and we may not be successful. Our international business also subjects us to the impact of differing regulatory requirements, costs and difficulties in managing a distributed workforce, and potentially adverse tax consequences in the United States and abroad. If our international activities were found to be in violation of any existing or future international laws or regulations or if interpretations of those laws and regulations were to change, our business in those countries could be subject to fines and other financial penalties, have licenses revoked, or be forced to restructure operations or shut down entirely. In addition, advertising markets outside of the United States are not as developed as those within the United States, and we may be unable to grow our business sufficiently. Any failure to successfully manage the risks and challenges related to our international operations could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We have entered into, and may in the future enter into, credit facilities which may contain operating and financial covenants that restrict our business and financing activities.

We have entered into, and may in the future enter into, credit facilities which contain restrictions that limit our flexibility in operating our business. Our credit facility contains, and any future credit facility may contain, various covenants that limit our ability to engage in specified types of transactions. Subject to exceptions, these covenants limit our ability to, among other things:

•sell assets or make changes to the nature of our business;

•engage in mergers or acquisitions;

•incur, assume or permit additional indebtedness and guarantees;

•make restricted payments, including paying dividends on, repurchasing, redeeming or making distributions with respect to our capital stock;

•make specified investments;

•engage in transactions with our affiliates; and

•make payments in respect of subordinated debt.

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Our obligations under our credit facility are collateralized by a pledge of substantially all of our assets, including accounts receivable, deposit accounts, intellectual property and investment property and equipment. The covenants in our credit facility may limit our ability to take actions and, in the event that we breach one or more covenants, our lenders may choose to declare an event of default and require that we immediately repay all amounts outstanding, terminate the commitment to extend further credit and foreclose on the collateral granted to them to collateralize such indebtedness, which includes our intellectual property. In addition, if we fail to meet the required covenants, we will not have access to further draw-downs under our credit facility.

If we do not effectively grow and train our sales and client service teams, we may be unable to add new clients or increase sales to our existing clients and our business will be adversely affected.

We are substantially dependent on our sales and client service teams to obtain new clients and to increase spend by our existing clients. We believe that there is significant competition for sales personnel with the skills and technical knowledge that we require. Our ability to achieve revenue growth will depend, in large part, on our success in recruiting, hiring, training, integrating and retaining sufficient numbers of sales personnel to support our growth in the United States and internationally. Due to the complexity of our platform, new hires require significant training, and it may take significant time before they achieve full productivity. Our account managers, for instance, need to be trained quickly on the features of our platform since failure to offer high-quality support may adversely affect our relationships with our clients. Our recent and planned hires may not become productive as quickly as we expect, and we may be unable to hire or retain sufficient numbers of qualified individuals in the markets where we do business or plan to do business. If we are unable to hire and train sufficient numbers of effective sales personnel, or the sales personnel are not successful in obtaining new clients or increasing our existing clients’ spend with us, our business will be adversely affected.

Our corporate culture has contributed to our success, and if we are unable to maintain it as we grow, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be harmed.

We have experienced and may continue to experience rapid expansion of our employee ranks. We believe our corporate culture has been a key element of our success. However, as our organization grows and expands globally, it may be difficult to maintain our culture, which could reduce our ability to innovate and operate effectively. The failure to maintain the key aspects of our culture as our organization grows could result in decreased employee satisfaction, increased difficulty in attracting top talent, increased turnover and could compromise the quality of our client service, all of which are important to our success and to the effective execution of our business strategy. In the event we are unable to maintain our corporate culture as we grow to scale, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be harmed.

Our proprietary rights may be difficult to enforce, which could enable others to copy or use aspects of our technology without compensating us, thereby eroding our competitive advantages and harming our business.

We rely upon a combination of trade secrets, third-party confidentiality and non-disclosure agreements, additional contractual restrictions on disclosure and use, and trademark, copyright, patent and other intellectual property laws to establish and protect our proprietary rights. These laws, procedures and restrictions provide only limited protection. We currently have “theTradeDesk” and variants and other marks registered as trademarks or pending registrations in the United States and certain foreign countries. We also rely on copyright laws to protect computer programs related to our platform and our proprietary technologies, although to date we have not registered for statutory copyright protection. We have registered numerous Internet domain names in the United States and certain foreign countries related to our business. We endeavor to enter into agreements with our employees and contractors in order to limit access to and disclosure of our proprietary information, as well as to clarify rights to intellectual property associated with our business. Protecting our intellectual property is a challenge, especially after our employees or our contractors end their relationship with us, and, in some cases, decide to work for our competitors. Our contracts with our employees and contractors that relate to intellectual property issues generally restrict the use of our confidential information solely in connection with our services, and strictly prohibit reverse engineering. However, reverse engineering our software or the theft or misuse of our proprietary information could occur by employees or other third parties who have access to our technology. Enforceability of the non-compete agreements that we have in place is not guaranteed, and contractual restrictions could be breached without discovery or adequate remedies. Historically, we have prioritized keeping our technology architecture, trade secrets and engineering roadmap private, and as a general matter, have not patented our proprietary technology. As a result, we cannot look to patent enforcement rights to protect much of our proprietary technology. Furthermore, our patent strategy is still in its early stages. We may not be able to obtain any further patents, and our pending applications may not result in the issuance of patents. Any issued patents may be challenged, invalidated or circumvented, and any rights granted under these patents may not actually provide adequate defensive protection or competitive advantages to us. Additionally, the process

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of obtaining patent protection is expensive and time-consuming, and we may not be able to prosecute all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner.

Policing unauthorized use of our technology is difficult. In addition, the laws of some foreign countries may not be as protective of intellectual property rights as those of the United States, and mechanisms for enforcement of our proprietary rights in such countries may be inadequate. If we are unable to protect our proprietary rights (including in particular, the proprietary aspects of our platform) we may find ourselves at a competitive disadvantage to others who have not incurred the same level of expense, time and effort to create and protect their intellectual property.

We may be sued by third parties for alleged infringement of their proprietary rights, which would result in additional expense and potential damages.

There is significant patent and other intellectual property development activity in the digital advertising industry. Third-party intellectual property rights may cover significant aspects of our technologies or business methods or block us from expanding our offerings. Our success depends on the continual development of our platform. From time to time, we may receive claims from third parties that our platform and underlying technology infringe or violate such third parties’ intellectual property rights. To the extent we gain greater public recognition, we may face a higher risk of being the subject of intellectual property claims. The cost of defending against such claims, whether or not the claims have merit, is significant, regardless of whether we are successful in our defense, and could divert the attention of management, technical personnel and other employees from our business operations. Litigation regarding intellectual property rights is inherently uncertain due to the complex issues involved, and we may not be successful in defending ourselves in such matters. Additionally, we have obligations to indemnify our clients or inventory and data suppliers in connection with certain intellectual property claims. If we are found to infringe these rights, we could potentially be required to cease utilizing portions of our platform. We may also be required to develop alternative non-infringing technology, which could require significant time and expense. Additionally, we could be required to pay royalty payments, either as a one-time fee or ongoing, as well as damages for past use that was deemed to be infringing. If we cannot license or develop technology for any allegedly infringing aspect of our business, we would be forced to limit our service and may be unable to compete effectively. Any of these results could harm our business.

We face potential liability and harm to our business based on the nature of our business and the content on our platform.

Advertising often results in litigation relating to misleading or deceptive claims, copyright or trademark infringement, public performance royalties or other claims based on the nature and content of advertising that is distributed through our platform. Though we contractually require clients to generally represent to us that their advertisements comply with our ad standards and our inventory providers’ ad standards and that they have the rights necessary to serve advertisements through our platform, we do not independently verify whether we are permitted to deliver, or review the content of, such advertisements. If any of these representations are untrue, we may be exposed to potential liability and our reputation may be damaged. While our clients are typically obligated to indemnify us, such indemnification may not fully cover us, or we may not be able to collect. In addition to settlement costs, we may be responsible for our own litigation costs, which can be expensive.

We are subject to anti-bribery, anti-corruption and similar laws and non-compliance with such laws can subject us to criminal penalties or significant fines and harm our business and reputation.

We are subject to anti-bribery and similar laws, such as the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, as amended, the U.S. domestic bribery statute contained in 18 U.S.C. § 201, the USA PATRIOT Act, U.S. Travel Act, the U.K. Bribery Act 2010 and Proceeds of Crime Act 2002, and possibly other anti-corruption, anti-bribery and anti-money laundering laws in countries in which we conduct business. Anti-corruption laws have been enforced with great rigor in recent years and are interpreted broadly. Such laws prohibit companies and their employees and their agents from making or offering improper payments or other benefits to government officials and others in the private sector. As we increase our international sales and business, particularly in countries with a low score on the CPI by Transparency International, and increase our use of third parties such as sales agents, distributors, resellers or consultants, our risks under these laws will increase. We adopt appropriate policies and procedures and conduct training, but cannot guarantee that improprieties will not occur. Noncompliance with these laws could subject us to investigations, sanctions, settlements, prosecution, other enforcement actions, disgorgement of profits, significant fines, damages, other civil and criminal penalties or injunctions, suspension and/or debarment from contracting with specified persons, the loss of export privileges, reputational harm,

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adverse media coverage, and other collateral consequences. Any investigations, actions and/or sanctions could have a material negative impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We are subject to governmental economic sanctions requirements and export and import controls that could impair our ability to compete in international markets or subject us to liability if we are not in compliance with applicable laws.

As a U.S. company, we are subject to U.S. export control and economic sanctions laws and regulations, and we are required to export our technology and services in compliance with those laws and regulations, including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations and economic embargo and trade sanctions programs administered by the Treasury Department’s Office of Foreign Assets Control. U.S. economic sanctions and export control laws and regulations prohibit the shipment of specified products and services to countries, governments and persons targeted by U.S. sanctions. While we take precautions to prevent doing any business, directly or indirectly, with countries, governments and persons targeted by U.S. sanctions and to ensure that our technology and services are not exported or used by countries, governments and persons targeted by U.S. sanctions, such measures may be circumvented. There can be no assurance that we will be in compliance with U.S. export control or economic sanctions laws and regulations in the future. Any such violation could result in significant criminal or civil fines, penalties or other sanctions and repercussions, including reputational harm that could materially adversely impact our business.

Furthermore, if we export our technology, the exports may require authorizations, including a license, a license exception or other appropriate government authorization. Complying with export control and sanctions regulations may be time-consuming and may result in the delay or loss of opportunities.

In addition, various countries regulate the import of encryption technology, including the imposition of import permitting and licensing requirements, and have enacted laws that could limit our ability to offer our platform or could limit our clients’ ability to use our platform in those countries. Changes in our platform or future changes in export and import regulations may create delays in the introduction of our platform in international markets or prevent our clients with international operations from deploying our platform globally. Any change in export or import regulations, economic sanctions or related legislation, or change in the countries, governments, persons, or technologies targeted by such regulations, could result in decreased use of our platform by, or in our decreased ability to export our technology and services to, existing or potential clients with international operations. Any decreased use of our platform or limitation on our ability to export our platform would likely adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Risks Related to Ownership of Our Class A Common Stock

The market price of our Class A common stock may be volatile or may decline regardless of our operating performance, and you may not be able to resell your shares at or above your purchase price.

The market price of our stock and of equity securities of technology companies has historically experienced high levels of volatility. If you purchase shares of our Class A common stock, you may not be able to resell those shares at or above your purchase price. The market price of our Class A common stock has fluctuated and may fluctuate significantly in response to numerous factors, some of which are beyond our control and may not be related to our operating performance, including:

•announcements of new offerings, products, services or technologies, commercial relationships, acquisitions, or other events by us or our competitors;

•price and volume fluctuations in the overall stock market from time to time;

•significant volatility in the market price and trading volume of technology companies in general and of companies in the digital advertising industry in particular;

•fluctuations in the trading volume of our shares or the size of our public float;

•trading activity in our share repurchase program;

•actual or anticipated changes or fluctuations in our results of operations;

•whether our results of operations meet the expectations of securities analysts or investors;

•actual or anticipated changes in the expectations of investors or securities analysts;

•litigation involving us, our industry, or both;

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•regulatory developments in the United States, foreign countries, or both;

•general economic conditions and trends;

•terrorist attacks, political upheaval, natural disasters, war, public health crises, or other major catastrophic events;

•sales of large blocks of our common stock;

•departures of key employees; or

•an adverse impact on us from any of the other risks cited herein.

In addition, if the stock market for technology companies, or the stock market generally, experiences a loss of investor confidence, the trading price of our Class A common stock could decline for reasons unrelated to our business, financial condition or results of operations. Stock prices of many technology companies have fluctuated in a manner unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of those companies. The trading price of our Class A common stock might also decline in reaction to events that affect other companies in our industry even if these events do not directly affect us. For example, in February and March 2025, securities class action litigation was filed against us following a drop in our stock price. For additional information regarding the pending legal proceedings, refer to “Item 1. Legal Proceedings.” Our involvement in securities litigation will subject us to substantial costs, divert resources and the attention of management from our core business, and may adversely affect our business.

Substantial future sales of shares of our common stock could cause the market price of our Class A common stock to decline.

The market price of our Class A common stock could decline as a result of substantial sales of our common stock, particularly sales by our directors, executive officers and significant stockholders, or the perception in the market that holders of a large number of shares intend to sell their shares.

Additionally, our directors, executive officers, employees and, in certain instances, service providers, hold shares of common stock subject to outstanding options, restricted stock awards and restricted stock units under our equity incentive plans. Those shares and the shares reserved for future issuance under our equity incentive plans are and will become eligible for sale in the public market, subject to certain legal and contractual limitations.

Insiders have substantial control over our company, including as a result of the dual class structure of our common stock, which could limit your ability to influence the outcome of key decisions, including a change of control.

Our Class B common stock has ten votes per share and our Class A common stock has one vote per share. Because of the ten-to-one voting ratio between our Class B and Class A common stock, the holders of our Class B common stock collectively have substantial control of the combined voting power of our common stock. Our articles of incorporation provide that all Class B common stock will convert automatically into Class A common stock on December 22, 2025, unless converted prior to such date. As of June 30, 2025, stockholders who held shares of Class B common stock, including our executive officers, employees, and directors and their affiliates, together held approximately 49.2% of the voting power of our outstanding capital stock. This concentrated control limits or precludes your ability to influence corporate matters, as the holders of Class B common stock are able to influence or substantially control matters requiring approval by our stockholders, including the election of the directors, excluding the director we have designated as a Class A director, and the approval of mergers, acquisitions or other extraordinary transactions. Their interests may differ from yours and they may vote in a manner that is adverse to your interests. This ownership concentration may deter, delay or prevent a change of control of our company, deprive our stockholders of an opportunity to receive a premium for their common stock as part of a sale of our company and may ultimately affect the market price of our common stock. Furthermore, in connection with the dual class nature of our common stock, we have become subject to legal proceedings and could become involved in additional litigation, including securities class action claims and/or derivative litigation. Any such legal proceedings, regardless of outcome or merit, may divert management’s time and attention and may result in the incurrence of significant expense, including legal fees. For additional information regarding the pending legal proceedings, refer to “Item 1. Legal Proceedings.”

Transfers by holders of Class B common stock will generally result in those shares converting to Class A common stock, subject to limited exceptions, such as transfers effected for estate planning or charitable purposes. However, until the conversion of all outstanding shares of Class B common stock, the conversion of Class B common stock to Class A

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common stock will have the effect, over time, of increasing the voting power of those holders of Class B common stock who retain their shares in the long term.

Our governing documents and Nevada law could discourage takeover attempts and other corporate governance changes.

Our articles of incorporation and bylaws contain provisions that could delay or prevent a change in control of our company. These provisions could also make it difficult for stockholders to elect directors that are not nominated by the current members of our board of directors or take other corporate actions, including effecting changes in our management. These provisions include the following provisions:

•permit the board of directors to establish the number of directors and fill any vacancies and newly created directorships;

•provide that our board of directors is classified into three classes with staggered, three-year terms and that directors may only be removed by the affirmative vote of the holders of at least 66 2/3% of the voting power of the then-outstanding shares of capital stock that all of our stockholders would be entitled to cast in an election of directors;

•require super-majority voting to amend certain provisions in our articles of incorporation and bylaws;

•authorize the issuance of “blank check” preferred stock that our board of directors could use to implement a stockholder rights plan;

•specify that special meetings of our stockholders can be called only by our board of directors, the chairman of our board of directors, our chief executive officer, or a stockholder that has held at least 20% of our outstanding shares of common stock continuously for one year;

•provide that the board of directors is expressly authorized to make, alter or repeal our bylaws;

•provide that vacancies on our board of directors may be filled only by a majority of directors then in office, even though less than a quorum;

•prohibit cumulative voting in the election of directors;

•restrict the forum for certain litigation against us to Nevada;

•restrict the forum for certain litigation against us to the federal district courts of the United States;

•permit our board of directors to alter our bylaws without obtaining stockholder approval;

•reflect the dual class structure of our common stock, as discussed above; and

•establish advance notice requirements for nominations for election to our board of directors or for proposing matters that can be acted upon by stockholders at annual stockholder meetings.

In addition, we are subject to Nevada’s statute on combinations with interested stockholders. These provisions may prohibit large stockholders, in particular those owning 10% or more of the voting power of our outstanding voting stock, from merging or combining with us for a period of time.

Our articles of incorporation and bylaws designate certain state or federal courts as the exclusive forum for certain litigation that may be initiated by our stockholders, which could limit stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us.

Our articles of incorporation provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the state courts located in the State of Nevada will be, to the fullest extent permitted by law, the sole and exclusive forum for any state law claim for:

•any action, suit or proceeding brought in our name or right or on our behalf;

•any action asserting or based upon a claim of breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any of our directors, officers, employees or agents to us or our stockholders; or

•any action asserting a claim arising pursuant to, or to interpret, apply, enforce or determine the validity of, any provision of the Nevada Revised Statutes, our articles of incorporation or our bylaws or certain

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voting trust agreements to which we are a party or a stated beneficiary (collectively, the “Nevada Forum Provision”).

The Nevada Forum Provision will not apply to any causes of action arising under the Securities Act or the Exchange Act. Further, our bylaws provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the federal district courts of the United States of America will be the sole and exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act (the “Federal Forum Provision”). In addition, our articles of incorporation and bylaws provide that any person or entity purchasing or otherwise acquiring any interest in shares of our capital stock is deemed to have notice of and consented to the Nevada Forum Provision and the Federal Forum Provision, respectively; provided, however, that stockholders cannot and will not be deemed to have waived our compliance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the rules and regulations thereunder.

The Nevada Forum Provision and the Federal Forum Provision in our articles of incorporation and bylaws may impose additional litigation costs on stockholders in pursuing any such claims. Additionally, these forum selection clauses may limit our stockholders’ ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that they find favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers, employees or agents (including, without limitation, any claims in respect of stockholder nominations of directors as permitted under our bylaws), which may discourage the filing of lawsuits against us and our directors, officers, employees and agents even though an action, if successful, might benefit our stockholders. In addition, there is uncertainty as to whether other courts will enforce our Federal Forum Provision. If the Federal Forum Provision is found to be unenforceable, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such matters. The Federal Forum Provision may also impose additional litigation costs on stockholders who assert that the provision is not enforceable or invalid. The state courts of the State of Nevada and the federal district courts may also reach different judgments or results than would other courts, including courts where a stockholder considering an action may be located or would otherwise choose to bring the action, and such judgments may be more or less favorable to us than our stockholders.

We cannot guarantee that our share repurchase program will be fully consummated, that it will enhance long-term stockholder value, or that it will successfully mitigate the dilutive effect of employee equity awards. Share repurchases diminish our cash reserves and could also increase the volatility of the trading price of our Class A common stock.

While our board of directors authorized a share repurchase program that does not have an expiration date, the program does not obligate us to acquire any particular amount of Class A common stock and it may be terminated at any time. We cannot guarantee that the program will be fully consummated, that it will enhance long-term stockholder value, or that it will successfully mitigate the dilutive effect of employee equity awards. Any repurchases will reduce the amount of cash we have available to fund working capital, capital expenditures, strategic acquisitions or business opportunities, and other general corporate requirements. In addition, the program could affect the trading price of our Class A common stock and increase volatility, and any announcement of a termination of this program may result in a decrease in the trading price of our Class A common stock.

General Risk Factors

If we fail to maintain an effective system of internal control over financial reporting in the future, we may not be able to accurately or timely report our financial condition or results of operations. If our internal control over financial reporting is not effective, it may adversely affect investor confidence in us and the price of our common stock.

As a public company, we are required to maintain internal control over financial reporting and to report any material weaknesses in such internal control. Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as amended (the “Sarbanes-Oxley Act”) requires that we evaluate and determine the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting and provide a management report on internal control over financial reporting.

Our platform system applications are complex, multi-faceted and include applications that are highly customized in order to serve and support our clients, advertising inventory and data suppliers, as well as support our financial reporting obligations. We regularly make improvements to our platform to maintain and enhance our competitive position. In the future, we may implement new offerings and engage in business transactions, such as acquisitions, reorganizations or implementation of new information systems.

These factors require us to develop and maintain our internal controls, processes and reporting systems, and we expect to incur ongoing costs in this effort. We may not be successful in developing and maintaining effective internal controls, and any failure to develop or maintain effective controls, or any difficulties encountered in their implementation or

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improvement, could harm our operating results or cause us to fail to meet our reporting obligations and may result in a restatement of our financial statements for prior periods.

If we identify material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting, we will be unable to assert that our internal control over financial reporting is effective. If we are unable to assert that our internal control over financial reporting is effective, if our independent registered public accounting firm is unable to express an opinion as to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting, or if we are unable to comply with the requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in a timely manner, then, we may be late with the filing of our periodic reports, investors may lose confidence in the accuracy and completeness of our financial reports and the market price of our common stock could be negatively affected. Such failures could also subject us to investigations by Nasdaq, the stock exchange on which our securities are listed, the SEC or other regulatory authorities, and to litigation from stockholders, which could harm our reputation, financial condition or divert financial and management resources from our core business.

The requirements of being a public company may strain our resources, divert our management’s attention and affect our ability to attract and retain qualified board members.

As a public company, we are subject to the reporting requirements of the Exchange Act, and are required to comply with the applicable requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the listing requirements of Nasdaq, and other applicable securities rules and regulations. Compliance with these rules and regulations increases our legal and financial compliance costs, make some activities more difficult, time-consuming or costly and increase demand on our systems and resources. Among other things, the Exchange Act requires that we file annual, quarterly and current reports with respect to our business and results of operations and maintain effective disclosure controls and procedures and internal controls over financial reporting. Significant resources and management oversight are required to maintain and, if required, improve our disclosure controls and procedures and internal controls over financial reporting to meet this standard. As a result, management’s attention may be diverted from other business concerns, which could harm our business and results of operations.

Exposure to foreign currency exchange rate fluctuations could negatively impact our results of operations.

While the majority of the transactions through our platform are denominated in U.S. Dollars, we have transacted in foreign currencies, both for inventory and data and for payments by clients from use of our platform. We also have expenses denominated in currencies other than the U.S. Dollar. Given our anticipated international growth, we expect the number of transactions in a variety of foreign currencies to continue to grow in the future. While we generally require a fee from our clients that pay in non-U.S. currency, this fee may not always cover foreign currency exchange rate fluctuations. In addition, for those clients that pay in non-U.S. currency, we often pay for the advertising inventory and data purchased by such clients in U.S. Dollars. As a result, any increase in the value of the U.S. Dollar against these foreign currencies could cause our revenue to decline relative to our costs. Although we currently have a program to hedge exposure to foreign currency fluctuations, the use of hedging instruments may not be available for all currencies or may not always offset losses resulting from foreign currency exchange rate fluctuations. Moreover, the use of hedging instruments can itself result in losses if we are unable to structure effective hedges with such instruments.

Future acquisitions, strategic investments or alliances could disrupt our business and harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We explore, on an ongoing basis, potential acquisitions of companies or technologies, strategic investments, or alliances to strengthen our business; however, we have limited experience in acquiring and integrating businesses, products and technologies. Even if we identify an appropriate acquisition candidate, we may not be successful in negotiating the terms or financing of the acquisition, and our due diligence may fail to identify all of the problems, liabilities or other shortcomings or challenges of an acquired business, product or technology, including issues related to intellectual property, product quality or architecture, regulatory compliance practices, revenue recognition or other accounting practices or employee or client issues. Acquisitions involve numerous risks, any of which could harm our business, including:

•regulatory hurdles;

•anticipated benefits may not materialize;

•diversion of management time and focus from operating our business to addressing acquisition integration challenges;

•retention of employees from the acquired company;

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•cultural challenges associated with integrating employees from the acquired company into our organization;

•integration of the acquired company’s products and technology;

•integration of the acquired company’s accounting, management information, human resources and other administrative systems;

•the need to implement or improve controls, procedures and policies at a business that, prior to the acquisition, may have lacked effective controls, procedures and policies;

•coordination of product development and sales and marketing functions;

•liability for activities of the acquired company before the acquisition, including relating to privacy and data security, patent and trademark infringement claims, violations of laws, commercial disputes, tax liabilities and other known and unknown liabilities; and

•litigation or other claims in connection with the acquisition, including claims from terminated employees, users, former stockholders or other third parties.

Failure to appropriately mitigate these risks or other issues related to such acquisitions and strategic investments could result in reducing or completely eliminating any anticipated benefits of transactions, and harm our business generally. Future acquisitions could also result in dilutive issuances of our equity securities, the incurrence of debt, contingent liabilities, amortization expenses or the impairment of goodwill, any of which could harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may not be able to secure additional financing on favorable terms, or at all, to meet our future capital needs, which may in turn impair our growth.

We intend to continue to grow our business, which will require additional capital to develop new features or enhance our platform, improve our operating infrastructure, finance working capital requirements, or acquire complementary businesses and technologies. We cannot assure you that our business will generate sufficient cash flow from operations or that future borrowings will be available to us under our existing credit facility in an amount sufficient to fund our working capital needs. Accordingly, we may need to engage in additional equity or debt financings to secure additional capital. We cannot assure you that we would be able to locate additional financing on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Any debt financing that we secure in the future could involve restrictive covenants relating to our capital raising activities and other financial and operational matters, which may make it more difficult for us to obtain additional capital and to pursue business opportunities. If our cash flows and credit facility borrowings are insufficient to fund our working capital requirements, we may not be able to grow at the rate we currently expect or at all. In addition, in the absence of sufficient cash flows from operations, we might be unable to meet our obligations under our credit facility, and we may therefore be at risk of default thereunder. If we raise additional funds through future issuances of equity or convertible debt securities, our existing stockholders could suffer significant dilution, and any new equity securities we issue could have rights, preferences and privileges superior to those of holders of our common stock. If we are unable to secure additional funding on favorable terms, or at all, when we require it, our ability to continue to grow our business to react to market conditions could be impaired and our business may be harmed.

Our tax liabilities may be greater than anticipated.

The U.S. and non-U.S. tax laws applicable to our business activities are subject to interpretation and are changing. We are subject to audit by the Internal Revenue Service and by taxing authorities of the state, local and foreign jurisdictions in which we operate. Our tax obligations are based in part on our corporate operating structure, including the manner in which we develop, value, use and hold our intellectual property, the jurisdictions in which we operate, how tax authorities assess revenue-based taxes such as sales and use taxes, the scope of our international operations and the value we ascribe to our intercompany transactions. Taxing authorities may challenge, and have challenged, our tax positions and methodologies for valuing developed technology or intercompany arrangements, positions regarding the collection of sales and use taxes, and the jurisdictions in which we are subject to taxes, which could expose us to additional taxes. Any adverse outcomes of such challenges to our tax positions could result in additional taxes for prior periods, interest and penalties, as well as higher future taxes. In addition, our future tax expense could increase as a result of changes in tax laws, regulations or accounting principles, or as a result of earning income in jurisdictions that have higher tax rates. For example, the European Commission has proposed, and various jurisdictions, including a number of states in the United States, are considering enacting or have enacted laws that impose separate taxes on specified digital services, which may

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increase our tax obligations in such jurisdictions. In addition, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (“OECD”) announced an Inclusive Framework on Base Erosion and Profit Shifting, including Pillar Two Model Rules defining a global minimum tax, which calls for the taxation of large multinational corporations at a minimum rate of 15%. Further, on July 4, 2025, the United States enacted the One Big Beautiful Bill Act that changes or makes permanent certain tax laws for corporations. While the changes from these rules have not negatively impacted our financial condition or results of operations, they could increase our effective tax rate and cash tax payments in future periods. Any increase in our tax expense could have a negative effect on our financial condition and results of operations. Moreover, the determination of our provision for income taxes and other tax liabilities requires significant estimates and judgment by management, and the tax treatment of certain transactions is uncertain. Any changes, ambiguity, or uncertainty in taxing jurisdictions’ administrative interpretations, decisions, policies and positions, including, the position of taxing authorities with respect to revenue generated by reference to certain digital services, could also materially impact our income tax liabilities. Although we believe we will make reasonable estimates and judgments, the ultimate outcome of any particular issue may differ from the amounts previously recorded in our financial statements and any such occurrence could materially affect our financial condition and results of operations.

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Item 2. Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds.

Sales of Unregistered Securities

None.

Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities

The following table summarizes share repurchase activity for the three months ended June 30, 2025.

	Total Number of Shares Purchased(1)	Average Price Paid Per Share(2)		Total Number of Shares Purchased as Part of Publicly Announced Programs(1)	Approximate Dollar Value of Shares that May Yet Be Purchased Under the Plans or Programs(1)
	(in thousands)			(in thousands)	(in millions)
April 1-30	546	$	56.00	546	$	600
May 1-31	—	$	—	—	$	600
June 1-30	3,202	$	70.28	3,202	$	375
	3,748			3,748

_______________

(1) On February 15, 2023, we announced that our board of directors approved a share repurchase program with authorization to repurchase up to $700 million our Class A common stock, which commenced in February 2023 and has no expiration date. In February 2024, an additional $647 million was authorized under this program, bringing the total amount available for future repurchases back to $700 million. At the end of January 2025, an additional $564 million was authorized under this program, bringing the total amount for future repurchases to $1 billion. The share repurchase program is designed to help offset the impact of future share dilution from employee stock issuances. Repurchases under the program may be made in the open market, in privately negotiated transactions or otherwise, with the amount and timing of repurchases determined at our discretion, depending on market conditions and corporate needs. Open market repurchases are structured to occur in accordance with applicable federal securities laws, including within the pricing and volume requirements of Rule 10b-18 under the Exchange Act. We may also, from time to time, enter into Rule 10b5-1 plans to facilitate repurchases of its shares under this authorization. The program does not obligate us to acquire a minimum amount of Class A common stock, and may be modified, suspended or terminated at any time at the discretion of our board of directors. See Note 7—Capitalization in Part I, Item 1 of this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for additional information related to share repurchases.

(2) Excludes other costs such as broker commissions and the accrued excise tax imposed by the IRA.

Item 5. Other Information

Rule 10b5-1 Trading Plans

Our Section 16 officers and directors (as defined in Rule 16a-1 under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, or the “Exchange Act”) may from time to time enter into plans for the purchase or sale of Company stock that are intended to satisfy the affirmative defense conditions of Rule 10b5-1(c) under the Exchange Act (“Rule 10b5-1(c)”).

On May 19, 2025, our Chief Strategy Officer and Class II Director, Samantha Jacobson, modified a trading plan with respect to the sale of our Class A common stock intended to satisfy the affirmative defense conditions of Rule 10b5-1(c), which she had previously adopted on August 22, 2024. The modified plan covers the sale of up to 177,190 shares. The plan will terminate at the earlier of the execution of all trading orders in the plan or May 27, 2026.

On June 13, 2025, our Chief Executive Officer and Class I Director, Jeff T. Green, through a personal trust over which he is a trustee and through a foundation for which he is the sole member and director, adopted a trading plan intended to satisfy the affirmative defense conditions of Rule 10b5-1(c) for the sale of up to 5,000,000 shares of our Class A common stock. The plan will terminate at the earlier of the execution of all trading orders in the plan or March 13, 2026.

During the quarter ended June 30, 2025, none of our Section 16 officers or directors adopted or terminated a “non-Rule 10b5-1 trading arrangement” (as defined in Item 408 of Regulation S-K).

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Item 6. Exhibits

Exhibit<br>Number	Exhibit Description	Incorporated by Reference			Filed<br>Herewith
		Form	Filing Date	Number
3.1	Articles of Incorporation of The Trade Desk, Inc.	8-K	11/18/2024	3.1
3.2	Bylaws of The Trade Desk, Inc.	8-K	11/18/2024	3.2
4.1	Reference is made to Exhibits 3.1 and 3.2.
4.2	Form of Class A Common Stock Certificate.	10-K	2/21/2025	4.2
4.3	Form of Class B Common Stock Certificate.	10-K	2/21/2025	4.3
10.1+	T he Trade Desk Inc. 2025 Incentive Award Plan .				X
31.1	Certification of Principal Executive Officer Pursuant to Exchange Act Rules 13a-14(a) and 15d-14(a), as adopted pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.				X
31.2	Certification of Principal Financial Officer Pursuant to Exchange Act Rules 13a-14(a) and 15d-14(a), as adopted pursuant to Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.				X
32.1(1)	Certifications of Principal Executive Officer and Principal Financial Officer Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as adopted pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.				X
101.ins	Inline XBRL Instance Document – the instance document does not appear in the Interactive Data File because its XBRL tags are embedded within the Inline XBRL document.				X
101.sch	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Schema Document.				X
101.cal	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Calculation Linkbase Document.				X
101.def	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Definition Linkbase Document.				X
101.lab	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Label Linkbase Document.				X
101.pre	Inline XBRL Taxonomy Presentation Linkbase Document.				X
104	Cover Page Interactive Data File (formatted as Inline XBRL and contained in Exhibit 101).				X

________________________

+	Indicates a management contract or compensatory plan or arrangement.

(1)The information in this exhibit is furnished and deemed not filed with the SEC for purposes of Section 18 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”), and is not to be incorporated by reference into any filing of The Trade Desk, Inc. under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Exchange Act, whether made before or after the date hereof, regardless of any general incorporation language in such filing.

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SIGNATURES

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the registrant has duly caused this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned thereunto duly authorized.

	THE TRADE DESK, INC.<br>(Registrant)
Dated: August 7, 2025	/s/ Laura Schenkein
	Laura Schenkein
	Chief Financial Officer<br>(Principal Financial and Accounting Officer)

Document

Exhibit 10.1

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

2025 INCENTIVE AWARD PLAN

ARTICLE 1.

PURPOSE

The purpose of The Trade Desk, Inc. 2025 Incentive Award Plan (as it may be amended or restated from time to time, the “Plan”) is to promote the success and enhance the value of The Trade Desk, Inc. (the “Company”) by linking the individual interests of the members of the Board, Employees, and Consultants to those of Company stockholders and by providing such individuals with an incentive for outstanding performance to generate superior returns to Company stockholders. The Plan is further intended to provide flexibility to the Company in its ability to motivate, attract, and retain the services of Directors, Employees, and Consultants upon whose judgment, interest, and special effort the successful conduct of the Company’s operation is largely dependent. This Plan amends and restates in its entirety The Trade Desk, Inc. 2016 Incentive Award Plan, which was initially adopted by the Board and approved by the Company’s stockholders on August 17, 2016 (the “Prior Plan”).

ARTICLE 2.

DEFINITIONS AND CONSTRUCTION

Wherever the following terms are used in the Plan they shall have the meanings specified below, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. The singular pronoun shall include the plural where the context so indicates.

2.1 “Administrator” shall mean the entity that conducts the general administration of the Plan as provided in Article 12. With reference to the duties of the Committee under the Plan which have been delegated to one or more persons pursuant to Section 12.6, or which the Board has assumed, the term “Administrator” shall refer to such person(s) unless the Committee or the Board has revoked such delegation or the Board has terminated the assumption of such duties.

2.2 “Applicable Accounting Standards” shall mean Generally Accepted Accounting Principles in the United States, International Financial Reporting Standards or such other accounting principles or standards as may apply to the Company’s financial statements under United States federal securities laws from time to time.

2.3 “Applicable Law” shall mean any applicable law, including without limitation: (a) provisions of the Code, the Securities Act, the Exchange Act and any rules or regulations thereunder; (b) corporate, securities, tax or other laws, statutes, rules, requirements or regulations, whether federal, state, local or foreign; and (c) rules of any securities exchange or automated quotation system on which the Shares are listed, quoted or traded.

2.4 “Award” shall mean an Option, a Stock Appreciation Right, a Restricted Stock award, a Restricted Stock Unit award, an Other Stock or Cash Based Award or a Dividend Equivalent award, which may be awarded or granted under the Plan.

2.5 “Award Agreement” shall mean any written notice, agreement, terms and conditions, contract or other instrument or document evidencing an Award, including through electronic medium, which shall contain such terms and conditions with respect to an Award as the Administrator shall determine consistent with the Plan.

2.6 “Award Limit” shall mean with respect to Awards that shall be payable in Shares or in cash, as the case may be, the respective limit set forth in Section 3.2.

2.7 “Board” shall mean the Board of Directors of the Company.

2.8 “Change in Control” shall mean and includes each of the following:

(a) A transaction or series of transactions (other than an offering of Common Stock to the general public through a registration statement filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission) whereby any “person” or related “group” of “persons” (as such terms are used in Sections 13(d) and 14(d)(2) of the Exchange Act) directly or indirectly acquires beneficial ownership (within the meaning of Rules 13d-3 and 13d-5 under the Exchange Act) of securities of the Company possessing more than fifty percent (50%) of the total combined voting power of the Company’s securities outstanding immediately after such acquisition; provided, however, that the following acquisitions shall not constitute a Change in Control: (i) any acquisition by the Company or any of its Subsidiaries; (ii) any acquisition by an employee benefit plan maintained by the Company or any of its Subsidiaries, (iii) any acquisition the results of which is described in Sections 2.8(c)(i), 2.8(c)(ii) or 2.8(c)(iii); or (iv) in respect of an Award held by a particular Holder, any acquisition by the Holder or any group of persons including the Holder (or any entity controlled by the Holder or any group of persons including the Holder); or

(b) The Incumbent Directors cease for any reason to constitute a majority of the Board;

(c) The consummation by the Company (whether directly involving the Company or indirectly involving the Company through one or more intermediaries) of (x) a merger, consolidation, reorganization, or business combination, (y) a sale or other disposition of all or substantially all of the Company’s assets in any single transaction or series of related transactions or (z) the acquisition of assets or stock of another entity, in each case other than a transaction:

(i) after which the Company’s voting securities outstanding immediately before the transaction continue to represent (either by remaining outstanding or by being converted into voting securities of the Company or the person that, as a result of the transaction, controls, directly or indirectly, the Company or owns, directly or indirectly, all or substantially all of the Company’s assets or otherwise succeeds to the business of the Company (the Company or such person, the “Successor Entity”)) directly or indirectly, at least a majority of the combined voting power of the Successor Entity’s outstanding voting securities immediately after the transaction, and

(ii) after which no person or group beneficially owns voting securities representing more than fifty percent (50%) of the combined voting power of the Successor Entity; provided, however, that no person or group shall be treated for purposes of this Section 2.8(c)(ii) as beneficially owning more than fifty percent (50%) of the combined voting power of the Successor Entity solely as a result of the voting power held in the Company prior to the consummation of the transaction; and

(iii) after which at least a majority of the members of the board of directors (or the analogous governing body) of the Successor Entity were Board members at the time of the Board’s approval of the execution of the initial agreement providing for such transaction; or

(d) The date which is ten (10) business days prior to the completion of a liquidation or dissolution of the Company.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, if a Change in Control constitutes a payment event with respect to any Award (or any portion of an Award) that provides for the deferral of compensation that is subject to Section 409A, to the extent required to avoid the imposition of additional taxes under Section 409A, the transaction or event described in subsection (a), (b), (c) or (d) with respect to such Award (or portion thereof) shall only constitute a Change in Control for purposes of the payment timing of such Award if such transaction also constitutes a “change in control event,” as defined in Treasury Regulation Section 1.409A-3(i)(5).

The Administrator shall have full and final authority, which shall be exercised in its sole discretion, to determine conclusively whether a Change in Control has occurred pursuant to the above definition, the date of the occurrence of such Change in Control and any incidental matters relating thereto; provided that any exercise of authority in

conjunction with a determination of whether a Change in Control is a “change in control event” as defined in Treasury Regulation Section 1.409A-3(i)(5) shall be consistent with such regulation.

2.9 “Code” shall mean the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended from time to time, together with the regulations and official guidance promulgated thereunder, whether issued prior or subsequent to the grant of any Award.

2.10 “Committee” shall mean the Compensation Committee of the Board, or another committee or subcommittee of the Board or the Compensation Committee of the Board described in Article 12 hereof.

2.11 “Common Stock” shall mean the Class A common stock of the Company, par value $0.000001 per share.

2.12 “Company” shall have the meaning set forth in Article 1.

2.13 “Consultant” shall mean any consultant or adviser engaged to provide services to the Company or any Subsidiary who qualifies as a consultant or advisor under the applicable rules of the Securities and Exchange Commission for registration of shares on a Form S-8 Registration Statement or any successor form thereto.

2.14 “Covered Employee” shall mean any Employee who is, or could become, a “covered employee” within the meaning of Section 162(m) of the Code.

2.15 “Director” shall mean a member of the Board, as constituted from time to time.

2.16 “Director Limit” shall have the meaning set forth in Section 4.6.

2.17 “Dividend Equivalent” shall mean a right to receive the equivalent value (in cash or Shares) of dividends paid on Shares, awarded under Section 10.2.

2.18 “DRO” shall mean a “domestic relations order” as defined by the Code or Title I of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, as amended from time to time, or the rules thereunder.

2.19 “Effective Date” shall mean the date the Board approves this Plan, subject to approval of the Plan by the Company’s stockholders.

2.20 “Eligible Individual” shall mean any person who is an Employee, a Consultant or a Non-Employee Director, as determined by the Administrator.

2.21 “Employee” shall mean any officer or other employee (as determined in accordance with Section 3401(c) of the Code and the Treasury Regulations thereunder) of the Company or of any Subsidiary.

2.22 “Equity Restructuring” shall mean a nonreciprocal transaction between the Company and its stockholders, such as a stock dividend, stock split, spin-off, rights offering or recapitalization through a large, nonrecurring cash dividend, that affects the number or kind of Shares (or other securities of the Company) or the share price of Common Stock (or other securities) and causes a change in the per-share value of the Common Stock underlying outstanding Awards.

2.23 “Exchange Act” shall mean the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended from time to time.

2.24 “Expiration Date” shall have the meaning given to such term in Section 13.1(c).

2.25 “Fair Market Value” shall mean, as of any given date, the value of a Share determined as follows:

(a) If the Common Stock is (i) listed on any established securities exchange (such as the New York Stock Exchange, the NASDAQ Capital Market, the NASDAQ Global Market and the NASDAQ Global Select Market), (ii) listed on any national market system or (iii) quoted or traded on any automated quotation system, its Fair Market Value shall be the closing sales price for a Share as quoted on such exchange or system for such date or, if there is no closing sales price for a Share on the date in question, the closing sales price for a Share on the last preceding date for which such quotation exists, as reported in The Wall Street Journal or such other source as the Administrator deems reliable;

(b) If the Common Stock is not listed on an established securities exchange, national market system or automated quotation system, but the Common Stock is regularly quoted by a recognized securities dealer, its Fair Market Value shall be the mean of the high bid and low asked prices for such date or, if there are no high bid and low asked prices for a Share on such date, the high bid and low asked prices for a Share on the last preceding date for which such information exists, as reported in The Wall Street Journal or such other source as the Administrator deems reliable; or

(c) If the Common Stock is neither listed on an established securities exchange, national market system or automated quotation system nor regularly quoted by a recognized securities dealer, its Fair Market Value shall be established by the Administrator in good faith.

Notwithstanding the foregoing, with respect to any Award granted after the effectiveness of the Company’s registration statement relating to its initial public offering and prior to the Public Trading Date, the Fair Market Value shall mean the initial public offering price of a Share as set forth in the Company’s final prospectus relating to its initial public offering filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission.

2.26 “Greater Than 10% Stockholder” shall mean an individual then owning (within the meaning of Section 424(d) of the Code) more than ten percent (10%) of the total combined voting power of all classes of stock of the Company or any subsidiary corporation (as defined in Section 424(f) of the Code) or parent corporation thereof (as defined in Section 424(e) of the Code).

2.27 “Holder” shall mean a person who has been granted an Award.

2.28 “Incentive Stock Option” shall mean an Option that is intended to qualify as an incentive stock option and conforms to the applicable provisions of Section 422 of the Code.

2.29 “Incumbent Directors” shall mean for any period of twelve (12) consecutive months, individuals who, at the beginning of such period, constitute the Board together with any new Director(s) (other than a Director designated by a person who shall have entered into an agreement with the Company to effect a transaction described in Section 2.8(a) or 2.8(c)) whose election or nomination for election to the Board was approved by a vote of at least a majority (either by a specific vote or by approval of the proxy statement of the Company in which such person is named as a nominee for Director without objection to such nomination) of the Directors then still in office who either were Directors at the beginning of the twelve (12)-month period or whose election or nomination for election was previously so approved. No individual initially elected or nominated as a director of the Company as a result of an actual or threatened election contest with respect to Directors or as a result of any other actual or threatened solicitation of proxies by or on behalf of any person other than the Board shall be an Incumbent Director.

2.30 “Non-Employee Director” shall mean a Director of the Company who is not an Employee.

2.31 “Non-Employee Director Equity Compensation Policy” shall have the meaning set forth in Section 4.6.

2.32 “Non-Qualified Stock Option” shall mean an Option that is not an Incentive Stock Option or which is designated as an Incentive Stock Option but does not meet the applicable requirements of Section 422 of the Code.

2.33 “Option” shall mean a right to purchase Shares at a specified exercise price, granted under Article 6. An Option shall be either a Non-Qualified Stock Option or an Incentive Stock Option; provided, however, that Options granted to Non-Employee Directors and Consultants shall only be Non-Qualified Stock Options.

2.34 “Option Term” shall have the meaning set forth in Section 6.4.

2.35 “Organizational Documents” shall mean, collectively, (a) the Company’s articles of incorporation, certificate of incorporation, bylaws or other similar organizational documents relating to the creation and governance of the Company, and (b) the Committee’s charter or other similar organizational documentation relating to the creation and governance of the Committee.

2.36 “Other Stock or Cash Based Award” shall mean a cash payment, cash bonus award, stock payment, stock bonus award, performance award or incentive award that is paid in cash, Shares or a combination of both, awarded under Section 10.1, which may include, without limitation, deferred stock, deferred stock units, performance awards, retainers, committee fees, and meeting-based fees.

2.37 “Performance-Based Compensation” shall mean any compensation that is intended to qualify as “performance-based compensation” as described in Section 162(m)(4)(C) of the Code.

2.38 “Performance Criteria” shall mean the criteria (and adjustments) that the Administrator selects for an Award for purposes of establishing the Performance Goal or Performance Goals for a Performance Period, determined as follows:

(a) The Performance Criteria that shall be used to establish Performance Goals are limited to the following: (i) net earnings or losses (as may be adjusted before or after one or more of the following: (A) interest, (B) taxes, (C) depreciation, (D) amortization and (E) non-cash equity-based compensation expense); (ii) gross or net sales or revenue or sales or revenue growth; (iii) net income (either before or after taxes); (iv) adjusted net income; (v) operating earnings or profit (either before or after taxes); (vi) cash flow (including, but not limited to, operating cash flow and free cash flow); (vii) return on assets; (viii) return on capital (or invested capital) and cost of capital; (ix) return on stockholders’ equity; (x) total stockholder return; (xi) return on sales; (xii) gross or net profit or operating margin; (xiii) costs, reductions in costs and cost control measures; (xiv) expenses; (xv) working capital; (xvi) earnings or loss per share; (xvii) adjusted earnings or loss per share; (xviii) price per share or dividends per share (or appreciation in and/or maintenance of such price or dividends); (xix) regulatory achievements or compliance (including, without limitation, regulatory body approval for commercialization of a product); (xx) implementation or completion of critical projects; (xxi) market share; (xxii) economic value; (xxiii) gross spend; and (xxiv) take rate, any of which may be measured either in absolute terms or as compared to any incremental increase or decrease or as compared to results of a peer group or to market performance indicators or indices.

(b) The Administrator, in its sole discretion, may provide that one or more objectively determinable adjustments shall be made to one or more of the Performance Goals. Such adjustments may include, but are not limited to, one or more of the following: (i) items related to a change in Applicable Accounting Standards; (ii) items relating to financing activities; (iii) expenses for restructuring or productivity initiatives; (iv) other non-operating items; (v) items related to acquisitions; (vi) items attributable to the business operations of any entity acquired by the Company during the Performance Period; (vii) items related to the sale or disposition of a business or segment of a business; (viii) items related to discontinued operations that do not qualify as a segment of a business under Applicable Accounting Standards; (ix) items attributable to any stock dividend, stock split, combination or exchange of stock occurring during the Performance Period; (x) any other items of significant income or expense which are determined to be appropriate adjustments; (xi) items relating to unusual or extraordinary corporate transactions, events or developments, (xii) items related to amortization of acquired intangible assets; (xiii) items that are outside the scope of the Company’s core, on-going business activities; (xiv) items related to acquired in-process research and development; (xv) items relating to changes in tax laws; (xvi) items relating to major licensing or partnership arrangements; (xvii) items relating to asset impairment charges; (xviii) items relating to gains or losses for litigation, arbitration and contractual settlements; (xix) items attributable to expenses incurred in connection with a reduction in force or early retirement initiative; (xx) items relating to foreign

exchange or currency transactions and/or fluctuations; or (xxi) items relating to any other unusual or nonrecurring events or changes in Applicable Law, Applicable Accounting Standards or business conditions. For all Awards intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation, such determinations shall be made within the time prescribed by, and otherwise in compliance with, Section 162(m) of the Code.

2.39 “Performance Goals” shall mean, for a Performance Period, one or more goals established in writing by the Administrator for the Performance Period based upon one or more Performance Criteria. Depending on the Performance Criteria used to establish such Performance Goals, the Performance Goals may be expressed in terms of overall Company performance or the performance of a Subsidiary, division, business unit, or an individual. The achievement of each Performance Goal shall be determined, to the extent applicable, with reference to Applicable Accounting Standards.

2.40 “Performance Period” shall mean one or more periods of time, which may be of varying and overlapping durations, as the Administrator may select, over which the attainment of one or more Performance Goals will be measured for the purpose of determining a Holder’s right to, vesting of, and/or the payment in respect of, an Award.

2.41 “Permitted Transferee” shall mean, with respect to a Holder, any “family member” of the Holder, as defined in the General Instructions to Form S-8 Registration Statement under the Securities Act (or any successor form thereto), or any other transferee specifically approved by the Administrator in accordance with Applicable Law.

2.42 “Plan” shall have the meaning set forth in Article 1.

2.43 “Prior Plans” shall mean, collectively, The Trade Desk, Inc. 2015 Equity Incentive Plan and The Trade Desk, Inc. 2010 Stock Plan, in each case, as amended from time to time.

2.44 “Program” shall mean any program adopted by the Administrator pursuant to the Plan containing the terms and conditions intended to govern a specified type of Award granted under the Plan and pursuant to which such type of Award may be granted under the Plan.

2.45 “Public Trading Date” shall mean the first date upon which the Common Stock is listed (or approved for listing) upon notice of issuance on any securities exchange or designated (or approved for designation) upon notice of issuance as a national market security on an interdealer quotation system.

2.46 “Restricted Stock” shall mean Common Stock awarded under Article 8 that is subject to certain restrictions and may be subject to risk of forfeiture or repurchase.

2.47 “Restricted Stock Units” shall mean a contractual right awarded under Article 9 to receive Shares (or their equivalent value) at a future date.

2.48 “Section 409A” shall mean Section 409A of the Code and the Department of Treasury regulations and other interpretive guidance issued thereunder, including, without limitation, any such regulations or other guidance that may be issued after the Effective Date.

2.49 “Securities Act” shall mean the Securities Act of 1933, as amended.

2.50 “Shares” shall mean shares of Common Stock.

2.51 “Stock Appreciation Right” shall mean an Award entitling the Holder (or other person entitled to exercise pursuant to the Plan) to exercise all or a specified portion thereof (to the extent then-exercisable pursuant to its terms) and to receive from the Company an amount determined by multiplying the difference obtained by subtracting the exercise price per share of such Award from the Fair Market Value on the date of exercise of such

Award by the number of Shares with respect to which such Award shall have been exercised, subject to any limitations the Administrator may impose.

2.52 “SAR Term” shall have the meaning set forth in Section 6.4.

2.53 “Subsidiary” shall mean any entity (other than the Company), whether domestic or foreign, in an unbroken chain of entities beginning with the Company if each of the entities other than the last entity in the unbroken chain beneficially owns, at the time of the determination, securities or interests representing at least fifty percent (50%) of the total combined voting power of all classes of securities or interests in one of the other entities in such chain.

2.54 “Substitute Award” shall mean an Award granted under the Plan in connection with a corporate transaction, such as a merger, combination, consolidation or acquisition of property or stock, in any case, upon the assumption of, or in substitution for, outstanding equity awards previously granted by a company or other entity; provided, however, that in no event shall the term “Substitute Award” be construed to refer to an award made in connection with the cancellation and repricing of an Option or Stock Appreciation Right.

2.55 “Termination of Service” shall mean:

(a) As to a Consultant, the time when the engagement of a Holder as a Consultant to the Company or a Subsidiary is terminated for any reason, with or without cause, including, without limitation, by resignation, discharge, death or retirement, but excluding terminations where the Consultant simultaneously commences or remains in employment or service with the Company or any Subsidiary.

(b) As to a Non-Employee Director, the time when a Holder who is a Non-Employee Director ceases to be a Director for any reason, including, without limitation, a termination by resignation, failure to be elected, death or retirement, but excluding terminations where the Holder simultaneously commences or remains in employment or service with the Company or any Subsidiary.

(c) As to an Employee, the time when the employee-employer relationship between a Holder and the Company or any Subsidiary is terminated for any reason, including, without limitation, a termination by resignation, discharge, death, disability or retirement; but excluding terminations where the Holder simultaneously commences or remains in employment or service with the Company or any Subsidiary.

The Administrator, in its sole discretion, shall determine the effect of all matters and questions relating to any Termination of Service, including, without limitation, whether a Termination of Service has occurred, whether a Termination of Service resulted from a discharge for cause and all questions of whether particular leaves of absence constitute a Termination of Service; provided, however, that, with respect to Incentive Stock Options, unless the Administrator otherwise provides in the terms of any Program, Award Agreement or otherwise, or as otherwise required by Applicable Law, a leave of absence, change in status from an employee to an independent contractor or other change in the employee-employer relationship shall constitute a Termination of Service only if, and to the extent that, such leave of absence, change in status or other change interrupts employment for the purposes of Section 422(a)(2) of the Code and the then-applicable regulations and revenue rulings under said Section. For purposes of the Plan, a Holder’s employee-employer relationship or consultancy relations shall be deemed to be terminated in the event that the Subsidiary employing or contracting with such Holder ceases to remain an Subsidiary following any merger, sale of stock or other corporate transaction or event (including, without limitation, a spin-off).

ARTICLE 3.

SHARES SUBJECT TO THE PLAN

3.1 Number of Shares.

(a) Subject to Sections 3.1(b) and 13.2, the aggregate number of Shares which may be issued or transferred pursuant to Awards (including, without limitation, Incentive Stock Options) under the Plan is the sum of (i) forty million (40,000,000) Shares, plus (ii) a number of Shares equal to the number of shares of Class B common stock which, as of the August 17, 2016, are subject to awards under the Prior Plans which are forfeited or lapse unexercised and which following August 17, 2016 are not issued under the Prior Plans, plus (iii) an annual increase on the first day of each calendar year beginning on January 1, 2017 and ending on and including January 1, 2026, equal to the lesser of (a) four percent (4%) of the Shares outstanding (on an as-converted basis) on the final day of the immediately preceding calendar year and (b) such smaller number of Shares as determined by the Board; provided, however, that no more than one hundred sixty six million six hundred sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixty (166,666,660) Shares may be issued upon the exercise of Incentive Stock Options. Any Shares distributed pursuant to an Award may consist, in whole or in part, of authorized and unissued Common Stock, treasury Common Stock or Common Stock purchased on the open market.

(b) The following Shares (or a number of Shares equal to the number of shares of Class B common stock, as applicable) shall be added to the Shares authorized for grant under Section 3.1(a) and shall be available for future grants of Awards under the Plan: (i) any Shares subject to an Award are forfeited or expire or an Award is settled for cash (in whole or in part); (ii) after August 17, 2016, any shares of Class B common stock subject to an award under any Prior Plan are forfeited or expire or an award under any Prior Plan is settled for cash (in whole or in part); (iii) Shares tendered by a Holder or withheld by the Company in payment of the exercise price of an Option; (iv) Shares tendered by the Holder or withheld by the Company to satisfy any tax withholding obligation with respect to an Award; (v) Shares subject to a Stock Appreciation Right that are not issued in connection with the stock settlement of the Stock Appreciation Right on exercise thereof; (vi) Shares purchased on the open market with the cash proceeds from the exercise of Options; and (vii) any Shares repurchased by the Company under Section 8.4 at the same price paid by the Holder so that such Shares are returned to the Company. The payment of Dividend Equivalents in cash in conjunction with any outstanding Awards shall not be counted against the Shares available for issuance under the Plan. Notwithstanding the provisions of this Section 3.1(b), no Shares may again be optioned, granted or awarded if such action would cause an Incentive Stock Option to fail to qualify as an incentive stock option under Section 422 of the Code.

(c) Substitute Awards shall not reduce the Shares authorized for grant under the Plan, except as may be required by reason of Section 422 of the Code. Additionally, in the event that a company acquired by the Company or any Subsidiary or with which the Company or any Subsidiary combines has shares available under a pre-existing plan approved by its stockholders and not adopted in contemplation of such acquisition or combination, the shares available for grant pursuant to the terms of such pre-existing plan (as adjusted, to the extent appropriate, using the exchange ratio or other adjustment or valuation ratio or formula used in such acquisition or combination to determine the consideration payable to the holders of common stock of the entities party to such acquisition or combination) may be used for Awards under the Plan and shall not reduce the Shares authorized for grant under the Plan; provided that Awards using such available Shares shall not be made after the date awards or grants could have been made under the terms of the pre-existing plan, absent the acquisition or combination, and shall only be made to individuals who were not employed by or providing services to the Company or its Subsidiaries immediately prior to such acquisition or combination.

3.2 Limitation on Number of Shares Subject to Awards. Notwithstanding any provision in the Plan to the contrary, and subject to Section 13.2, the maximum aggregate number of Shares with respect to one or more Awards that may be granted to any one person during any calendar year shall be twenty six million six hundred sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixty (26,666,660) and the maximum aggregate amount of cash that may be paid to any one person during any calendar year with respect to one or more Awards payable in cash shall be three million dollars ($3,000,000); provided, however, that the foregoing limitations shall not apply until the earliest of the following events to occur after the Public Trading Date: (a) the first material modification of the Plan (including any increase in the number of Shares reserved for issuance under the Plan in accordance with Section 3.1); (b) the issuance of all of the Shares reserved for issuance under the Plan; (c) the expiration of the Plan; (d) the first meeting of stockholders at which members of the Board are to be elected that occurs after the close of the third calendar year following the calendar year in which occurred the first registration of an equity security of the Company under Section 12 of the Exchange Act; or (e) such other date, if any, on which the “reliance period” described under U.S.

Treasury Regulation 1.162-27(f)(2) expires pursuant to Section 162(m) of the Code and the rules and regulations promulgated thereunder. To the extent required by Section 162(m) of the Code, Shares subject to Awards which are canceled shall continue to be counted against the Award Limit.

ARTICLE 4.

GRANTING OF AWARDS

4.1 Participation. The Administrator may, from time to time, select from among all Eligible Individuals, those to whom an Award shall be granted and shall determine the nature and amount of each Award, which shall not be inconsistent with the requirements of the Plan. Except for any Non-Employee Director’s right to Awards that may be required pursuant to the Non-Employee Director Equity Compensation Policy as described in Section 4.6, no Eligible Individual or other person shall have any right to be granted an Award pursuant to the Plan and neither the Company nor the Administrator shall be obligated to treat Eligible Individuals, Holders or any other persons uniformly. Participation by each Holder in the Plan shall be voluntary and nothing in the Plan or any Program shall be construed as mandating that any Eligible Individual or other person participate in the Plan.

4.2 Award Agreement. Each Award shall be evidenced by an Award Agreement that sets forth the terms, conditions and limitations for such Award as determined by the Administrator in its sole discretion (consistent with the requirements of the Plan and any applicable Program). Award Agreements evidencing Awards intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation shall contain such terms and conditions as may be necessary to meet the applicable provisions of Section 162(m) of the Code. Award Agreements evidencing Incentive Stock Options shall contain such terms and conditions as may be necessary to meet the applicable provisions of Section 422 of the Code.

4.3 Limitations Applicable to Section 16 Persons. Notwithstanding any other provision of the Plan, the Plan, and any Award granted or awarded to any individual who is then subject to Section 16 of the Exchange Act, shall be subject to any additional limitations set forth in any applicable exemptive rule under Section 16 of the Exchange Act (including Rule 16b-3 of the Exchange Act and any amendments thereto) that are requirements for the application of such exemptive rule. To the extent permitted by Applicable Law, the Plan and Awards granted or awarded hereunder shall be deemed amended to the extent necessary to conform to such applicable exemptive rule.

4.4 At-Will Service. Nothing in the Plan or in any Program or Award Agreement hereunder shall confer upon any Holder any right to continue as an Employee, Director or Consultant of the Company or any Subsidiary, or shall interfere with or restrict in any way the rights of the Company and any Subsidiary, which rights are hereby expressly reserved, to discharge any Holder at any time for any reason whatsoever, with or without cause, and with or without notice, or to terminate or change all other terms and conditions of employment or engagement, except to the extent expressly provided otherwise in a written agreement between the Holder and the Company or any Subsidiary.

4.5 Foreign Holders. Notwithstanding any provision of the Plan or applicable Program to the contrary, in order to comply with the laws in countries other than the United States in which the Company and its Subsidiaries operate or have Employees, Non-Employee Directors or Consultants, or in order to comply with the requirements of any foreign securities exchange or other Applicable Law, the Administrator, in its sole discretion, shall have the power and authority to: (a) determine which Subsidiaries shall be covered by the Plan; (b) determine which Eligible Individuals outside the United States are eligible to participate in the Plan; (c) modify the terms and conditions of any Award granted to Eligible Individuals outside the United States to comply with Applicable Law (including, without limitation, applicable foreign laws or listing requirements of any foreign securities exchange); (d) establish subplans and modify exercise procedures and other terms and procedures, to the extent such actions may be necessary or advisable; provided, however, that no such subplans and/or modifications shall increase the share limitation contained in Section 3.1, the Award Limit or the Director Limit; and (e) take any action, before or after an Award is made, that it deems advisable to obtain approval or comply with any necessary local governmental regulatory exemptions or approvals or listing requirements of any foreign securities exchange.

4.6 Non-Employee Director Awards.

(a) Non-Employee Director Equity Compensation Policy. The Administrator, in its sole discretion, may provide that Awards granted to Non-Employee Directors shall be granted pursuant to a written nondiscretionary formula established by the Administrator (the “Non-Employee Director Equity Compensation Policy”), subject to the limitations of the Plan. The Non-Employee Director Equity Compensation Policy shall set forth the type of Award(s) to be granted to Non-Employee Directors, the number of Shares to be subject to Non-Employee Director Awards, the conditions on which such Awards shall be granted, become exercisable and/or payable and expire, and such other terms and conditions as the Administrator shall determine in its sole discretion. The Non-Employee Director Equity Compensation Policy may be modified by the Administrator from time to time in its sole discretion.

(b) Director Limit. Notwithstanding any provision to the contrary in the Plan or in the Non-Employee Director Equity Compensation Policy, the sum of (i) the value (determined as of the grant date in accordance with Financial Accounting Standards Board Accounting Standards Codification Topic 718, or any successor thereto) of equity-based Awards and (ii) the dollar amount of any cash Awards, in each case, granted to a Non-Employee Director as compensation for services as a Non-Employee Director during any fiscal year of the Company may not exceed one million dollars ($1,000,000) (the “Director Limit”).

ARTICLE 5.

PROVISIONS APPLICABLE TO AWARDS INTENDED TO QUALIFY AS PERFORMANCE-BASED COMPENSATION

5.1 Purpose. The Administrator may, in its sole discretion, (a) determine whether an Award is intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation and (b) at any time after any such determination, alter such intent for any or no reason. If the Administrator, in its sole discretion, decides to grant an Award that is intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation (other than an Option or Stock Appreciation Right), then the provisions of this Article 5 shall control over any contrary provision contained in the Plan or any applicable Program; provided, however, that, if after such decision the Administrator alters such intention for any reason, the provisions of this Article 5 shall no longer control over any other provision contained in the Plan or any applicable Program. The Administrator, in its sole discretion, may (i) grant Awards to Eligible Individuals that are based on Performance Criteria or Performance Goals or any such other criteria and goals as the Administrator shall establish, but that do not satisfy the requirements of this Article 5 and that are not intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation and (ii) subject any Awards intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation to additional conditions and restrictions unrelated to any Performance Criteria or Performance Goals (including, without limitation, continued employment or service requirements) to the extent such Awards otherwise satisfy the requirements of this Article 5 with respect to the Performance Criteria and Performance Goals applicable thereto. Unless otherwise specified by the Administrator at the time of grant, the Performance Criteria with respect to an Award intended to be Performance-Based Compensation payable to a Covered Employee shall be determined on the basis of Applicable Accounting Standards.

5.2 Procedures with Respect to Performance-Based Awards. To the extent necessary to comply with the requirements of Section 162(m)(4)(C) of the Code, with respect to any Award which is intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation, no later than ninety (90) days following the commencement of any Performance Period or any designated fiscal period or period of service (or such earlier time as may be required under Section 162(m) of the Code), the Administrator shall, in writing, (a) designate one or more Eligible Individuals, (b) select the Performance Criteria applicable to the Performance Period, (c) establish the Performance Goals, and amounts of such Awards, as applicable, which may be earned for such Performance Period based on the Performance Criteria, and (d) specify the relationship between the Performance Criteria and the Performance Goals and the amounts of such Awards, as applicable, to be earned by each Covered Employee for such Performance Period. Following the completion of each Performance Period, the Administrator shall certify in writing whether and the extent to which the applicable Performance Goals have been achieved for such Performance Period. In determining the amount earned under such Awards, the Administrator (i) shall, unless otherwise provided in an Award Agreement, have the right to reduce or eliminate the amount payable at a given level of performance to take into account additional

factors that the Administrator may deem relevant, including the assessment of individual or corporate performance for the Performance Period, but (ii) shall in no event have the right to increase the amount payable for any reason.

5.3 Payment of Performance-Based Awards. Unless otherwise provided in the applicable Program or Award Agreement and only to the extent otherwise permitted by Section 162(m) of the Code, as to an Award that is intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation, the Holder must be employed by the Company or a Subsidiary throughout the Performance Period. Unless otherwise provided in the applicable Program or Award Agreement, a Holder shall be eligible to receive payment pursuant to such Awards for a Performance Period only if and to the extent the Performance Goals for such Performance Period are achieved.

5.4 Additional Limitations. Notwithstanding any other provision of the Plan and except as otherwise determined by the Administrator, any Award which is granted to an Eligible Individual and is intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation shall be subject to any additional limitations set forth in Section 162(m) of the Code or any regulations or rulings issued thereunder that are requirements for qualification as Performance-Based Compensation, and the Plan and the applicable Program and Award Agreement shall be deemed amended to the extent necessary to conform to such requirements.

ARTICLE 6.

GRANTING OF OPTIONS AND STOCK APPRECIATION RIGHTS

6.1 Granting of Options and Stock Appreciation Rights to Eligible Individuals. The Administrator is authorized to grant Options and Stock Appreciation Rights to Eligible Individuals from time to time, in its sole discretion, on such terms and conditions as it may determine, which shall not be inconsistent with the Plan.

6.2 Qualification of Incentive Stock Options. The Administrator may grant Options intended to qualify as Incentive Stock Options only to employees of the Company, any of the Company’s present or future “parent corporations” or “subsidiary corporations” as defined in Sections 424(e) or (f) of the Code, respectively, and any other entities the employees of which are eligible to receive Incentive Stock Options under the Code. No person who qualifies as a Greater Than 10% Stockholder may be granted an Incentive Stock Option unless such Incentive Stock Option conforms to the applicable provisions of Section 422 of the Code. To the extent that the aggregate fair market value of stock with respect to which “incentive stock options” (within the meaning of Section 422 of the Code, but without regard to Section 422(d) of the Code) are exercisable for the first time by a Holder during any calendar year under the Plan, and all other plans of the Company and any parent corporation or subsidiary corporation thereof (as defined in Section 424(e) and 424(f) of the Code, respectively), exceeds $100,000, the Options shall be treated as Non-Qualified Stock Options to the extent required by Section 422 of the Code. The rule set forth in the immediately preceding sentence shall be applied by taking Options and other “incentive stock options” into account in the order in which they were granted and the fair market value of stock shall be determined as of the time the respective options were granted. Any interpretations and rules under the Plan with respect to Incentive Stock Options shall be consistent with the provisions of Section 422 of the Code. Neither the Company nor the Administrator shall have any liability to a Holder, or any other Person, (a) if an Option (or any part thereof) which is intended to qualify as an Incentive Stock Option fails to qualify as an Incentive Stock Option or (b) for any action or omission by the Company or the Administrator that causes an Option not to qualify as an Incentive Stock Option, including without limitation, the conversion of an Incentive Stock Option to a Non-Qualified Stock Option or the grant of an Option intended as an Incentive Stock Option that fails to satisfy the requirements under the Code applicable to an Incentive Stock Option.

6.3 Option and Stock Appreciation Right Exercise Price. The exercise price per Share subject to each Option and Stock Appreciation Right shall be set by the Administrator, but shall not be less than one hundred percent (100%) of the Fair Market Value of a Share on the date the Option or Stock Appreciation Right, as applicable, is granted (or, as to Incentive Stock Options, on the date the Option is modified, extended or renewed for purposes of Section 424(h) of the Code). In addition, in the case of Incentive Stock Options granted to a Greater Than 10% Stockholder, such price shall not be less than one hundred ten percent (110%) of the Fair Market Value of a Share on the date the Option is granted (or the date the Option is modified, extended or renewed for purposes of

Section 424(h) of the Code). Notwithstanding the foregoing, in the case of an Option or Stock Appreciation Right that is a Substitute Award, the exercise price per share of the Shares subject to such Option or Stock Appreciation Right, as applicable, may be less than the Fair Market Value per share on the date of grant; provided that the exercise price of any Substitute Award shall be determined in accordance with the applicable requirements of Section 424 and 409A of the Code.

6.4 Option and SAR Term. The term of each Option (the “Option Term”) and the term of each Stock Appreciation Right (the “SAR Term”) shall be set by the Administrator in its sole discretion; provided, however, that the Option Term or SAR Term, as applicable, shall not be more than (a) ten (10) years from the date the Option or Stock Appreciation Right, as applicable, is granted to an Eligible Individual (other than a Greater Than 10% Stockholder), or (b) five (5) years from the date an Incentive Stock Option is granted to a Greater Than 10% Stockholder. Except as limited by the requirements of Section 409A or Section 422 of the Code and regulations and rulings thereunder (unless otherwise determined by the Administrator) or the first sentence of this Section 6.4 and without limiting the Company’s rights under Section 11.7, the Administrator may extend the Option Term of any outstanding Option or the SAR Term of any outstanding Stock Appreciation Right, and may extend the time period during which vested Options or Stock Appreciation Rights may be exercised, in connection with any Termination of Service of the Holder or otherwise, and may amend, subject to Section 11.7 and 13.1, any other term or condition of such Option or Stock Appreciation Right relating to such Termination of Service of the Holder or otherwise.

6.5 Option and SAR Vesting. The period during which the right to exercise, in whole or in part, an Option or Stock Appreciation Right that vests in the Holder shall be set by the Administrator and set forth in the applicable Award Agreement. Unless otherwise determined by the Administrator in the Award Agreement, the applicable Program or by action of the Administrator following the grant of the Option or Stock Appreciation Right, (a) no portion of an Option or Stock Appreciation Right which is unexercisable at a Holder’s Termination of Service shall thereafter become exercisable and (b) the portion of an Option or Stock Appreciation Right that is exercisable at a Holder’s Termination of Service shall automatically expire at the close of business on the thirtieth (30th) date after such Termination of Service.

6.6 Substitution of Stock Appreciation Rights; Early Exercise of Options. The Administrator may provide in the applicable Program or Award Agreement evidencing the grant of an Option that the Administrator, in its sole discretion, shall have the right to substitute a Stock Appreciation Right for such Option at any time prior to or upon exercise of such Option; provided that such Stock Appreciation Right shall be exercisable with respect to the same number of Shares for which such substituted Option would have been exercisable, and shall also have the same exercise price, vesting schedule and remaining term as the substituted Option. The Administrator may provide in the terms of an Award Agreement that the Holder may exercise an Option in whole or in part prior to the full vesting of the Option in exchange for unvested shares of Restricted Stock with respect to any unvested portion of the Option so exercised. Shares of Restricted Stock acquired upon the exercise of any unvested portion of an Option shall be subject to such terms and conditions as the Administrator shall determine.

ARTICLE 7.

EXERCISE OF OPTIONS AND STOCK APPRECIATION RIGHTS

7.1 Exercise and Payment. An exercisable Option or Stock Appreciation Right may be exercised in whole or in part. However, an Option or Stock Appreciation Right shall not be exercisable with respect to fractional Shares and the Administrator may require that, by the terms of the Option or Stock Appreciation Right, a partial exercise must be with respect to a minimum number of Shares. Payment of the amounts payable with respect to Stock Appreciation Rights pursuant to this Article 7 shall be in cash, Shares (based on its Fair Market Value as of the date the Stock Appreciation Right is exercised), or a combination of both, as determined by the Administrator.

7.2 Manner of Exercise. All or a portion of an exercisable Option or Stock Appreciation Right shall be deemed exercised upon delivery of all of the following to the Secretary of the Company, the stock plan administrator of the Company or such other person or entity designated by the Administrator, or his, her or its office, as applicable:

(a) A written or electronic notice complying with the applicable rules established by the Administrator stating that the Option or Stock Appreciation Right, or a portion thereof, is exercised. The notice shall be signed or otherwise acknowledge electronically by the Holder or other person then entitled to exercise the Option or Stock Appreciation Right or such portion thereof;

(b) Such representations and documents as the Administrator, in its sole discretion, deems necessary or advisable to effect compliance with Applicable Law.

(c) In the event that the Option shall be exercised pursuant to Section 11.3 by any person or persons other than the Holder, appropriate proof of the right of such person or persons to exercise the Option or Stock Appreciation Right, as determined in the sole discretion of the Administrator; and

(d) Full payment of the exercise price and applicable withholding taxes for the Shares with respect to which the Option or Stock Appreciation Right, or portion thereof, is exercised, in a manner permitted by the Administrator in accordance with Sections 11.1 and 11.2.

7.3 Notification Regarding Disposition. The Holder shall give the Company prompt written or electronic notice of any disposition of Shares acquired by exercise of an Incentive Stock Option which occurs within (a) two (2) years from the date of grant (including the date the Option is modified, extended or renewed for purposes of Section 424(h) of the Code) of such Option to such Holder, or (b) one (1) year after the date of transfer of such Shares to such Holder. Such notice shall specify the date of such disposition or other transfer and the amount realized, in cash, other property, assumption of indebtedness or other consideration, by the Holder in such disposition or other transfer.

ARTICLE 8.

AWARD OF RESTRICTED STOCK

8.1 Award of Restricted Stock. The Administrator is authorized to grant Restricted Stock to Eligible Individuals, and shall determine the terms and conditions, including the restrictions applicable to each award of Restricted Stock, which terms and conditions shall not be inconsistent with the Plan or any applicable Program, and may impose such conditions on the issuance of such Restricted Stock as it deems appropriate. The Administrator shall establish the purchase price, if any, and form of payment for Restricted Stock; provided, however, that if a purchase price is charged, such purchase price shall be no less than the par value, if any, of the Shares to be purchased, unless otherwise permitted by Applicable Law. In all cases, legal consideration shall be required for each issuance of Restricted Stock to the extent required by Applicable Law.

8.2 Rights as Stockholders. Subject to Section 8.4, upon issuance of Restricted Stock, the Holder shall have, unless otherwise provided by the Administrator, all the rights of a stockholder with respect to said Shares, subject to the restrictions in the Plan, any applicable Program and/or the applicable Award Agreement, including the right to receive all dividends and other distributions paid or made with respect to the Shares to the extent such dividends and other distributions have a record date that is on or after the date on which the Holder to whom such Restricted Stock are granted becomes the record holder of such Restricted Stock; provided, however, that, in the sole discretion of the Administrator, any extraordinary distributions with respect to the Shares may be subject to the restrictions set forth in Section 8.3. In addition, with respect to a share of Restricted Stock with performance-based vesting, dividends which are paid prior to vesting shall only be paid out to the Holder to the extent that the performance-based vesting conditions are subsequently satisfied and the share of Restricted Stock vests.

8.3 Restrictions. All shares of Restricted Stock (including any shares received by Holders thereof with respect to shares of Restricted Stock as a result of stock dividends, stock splits or any other form of recapitalization) shall be subject to such restrictions and vesting requirements as the Administrator shall provide in the applicable Program or Award Agreement. By action taken after the Restricted Stock is issued, the Administrator may, on such terms and conditions as it may determine to be appropriate, accelerate the vesting of such Restricted Stock by removing any or all of the restrictions imposed by the terms of the applicable Program or Award Agreement.

8.4 Repurchase or Forfeiture of Restricted Stock. Except as otherwise determined by the Administrator, if no price was paid by the Holder for the Restricted Stock, upon a Termination of Service during the applicable restriction period, the Holder’s rights in unvested Restricted Stock then subject to restrictions shall lapse, and such Restricted Stock shall be surrendered to the Company and cancelled without consideration on the date of such Termination of Service. If a price was paid by the Holder for the Restricted Stock, upon a Termination of Service during the applicable restriction period, the Company shall have the right to repurchase from the Holder the unvested Restricted Stock then subject to restrictions at a cash price per Share equal to the price paid by the Holder for such Restricted Stock or such other amount as may be specified in the applicable Program or Award Agreement. Notwithstanding the foregoing, the Administrator, in its sole discretion, may provide that upon certain events, including, without limitation, a Change in Control, the Holder’s death, retirement or disability or any other specified Termination of Service or any other event, the Holder’s rights in unvested Restricted Stock then subject to restrictions shall not lapse, such Restricted Stock shall vest and cease to be forfeitable and, if applicable, the Company shall cease to have a right of repurchase.

8.5 Section 83(b) Election. If a Holder makes an election under Section 83(b) of the Code to be taxed with respect to the Restricted Stock as of the date of transfer of the Restricted Stock rather than as of the date or dates upon which the Holder would otherwise be taxable under Section 83(a) of the Code, the Holder shall deliver a copy of such election to the Company promptly after filing such election with the Internal Revenue Service along with proof of the timely filing thereof with the Internal Revenue Service.

ARTICLE 9.

AWARD OF RESTRICTED STOCK UNITS

9.1 Grant of Restricted Stock Units. The Administrator is authorized to grant Awards of Restricted Stock Units to any Eligible Individual selected by the Administrator in such amounts and subject to such terms and conditions as determined by the Administrator.

9.2 Term. Except as otherwise provided herein, the term (if any) of a Restricted Stock Unit award shall be set by the Administrator in its sole discretion.

9.3 Purchase Price. The Administrator shall specify the purchase price, if any, to be paid by the Holder to the Company with respect to any Restricted Stock Unit award; provided, however, that value of the consideration shall not be less than the par value of a Share, unless otherwise permitted by Applicable Law.

9.4 Vesting of Restricted Stock Units. At the time of grant, the Administrator shall specify the date or dates on which the Restricted Stock Units shall become fully vested and nonforfeitable, and may specify such conditions to vesting as it deems appropriate, including, without limitation, vesting based upon the Holder’s duration of service to the Company or any Subsidiary, one or more Performance Criteria, Company performance, individual performance and/or other specific criteria, in each case on a specified date or dates or over any period or periods, as determined by the Administrator.

9.5 Maturity and Payment. At the time of grant, the Administrator shall specify the maturity date applicable to each grant of Restricted Stock Units, which shall be no earlier than the vesting date or dates of the Award and may be determined at the election of the Holder (if permitted by the applicable Award Agreement); provided, however, that, except as otherwise determined by the Administrator and set forth in an Award Agreement, and subject to compliance with Section 409A, in no event shall the maturity date relating to each Restricted Stock Unit occur following the later of (a) the fifteenth (15th) day of the third (3rd) month following the end of calendar year in which the applicable portion of the Restricted Stock Unit vests; or (b) the fifteenth (15th) day of the third (3rd) month following the end of the Company’s fiscal year in which the applicable portion of the Restricted Stock Unit vests. On the maturity date, the Company shall, in accordance with the applicable Award Agreement and subject to Section 11.4(f), transfer to the Holder one unrestricted, fully transferable Share for each Restricted Stock Unit scheduled to be paid out on such date and not previously forfeited, or in the sole discretion of the Administrator, an amount in cash equal to the Fair Market Value of such Shares on the maturity date or a combination of cash and Common Stock as determined by the Administrator.

ARTICLE 10.

AWARD OF OTHER STOCK OR CASH BASED AWARDS AND DIVIDEND EQUIVALENTS

10.1 Other Stock or Cash Based Awards. The Administrator is authorized to (a) grant Other Stock or Cash Based Awards, including awards entitling a Holder to receive Shares or cash to be delivered immediately or in the future, to any Eligible Individual and (b) determine whether such Other Stock or Cash Based Awards shall be Performance-Based Compensation. Subject to the provisions of the Plan and any applicable Program, the Administrator shall determine the terms and conditions of each Other Stock or Cash Based Award, including the term of the Award, any exercise or purchase price, performance goals, including the Performance Criteria, transfer restrictions, vesting conditions and other terms and conditions applicable thereto, which shall be set forth in the applicable Award Agreement. Other Stock or Cash Based Awards may be paid in cash, Shares, or a combination of cash and Shares, as determined by the Administrator, and may be available as a form of payment in the settlement of other Awards granted under the Plan, as stand-alone payments, as a part of a bonus, deferred bonus, deferred compensation or other arrangement, and/or as payment in lieu of compensation to which an Eligible Individual is otherwise entitled.

10.2 Dividend Equivalents. Dividend Equivalents may be granted by the Administrator, either alone or in tandem with another Award, based on dividends declared on the Common Stock, to be credited as of dividend payment dates with respect to dividends with record dates that occur during the period between the date the Dividend Equivalents are granted to a Holder and the date such Dividend Equivalents terminate or expire, as determined by the Administrator. Such Dividend Equivalents shall be converted to cash or additional Shares by such formula and at such time and subject to such restrictions and limitations as may be determined by the Administrator. In addition, Dividend Equivalents with respect to an Award with performance-based vesting that are based on dividends paid prior to the vesting of such Award shall only be paid out to the Holder to the extent that the performance-based vesting conditions are subsequently satisfied and the Award vests. Notwithstanding the foregoing, no Dividend Equivalents shall be payable with respect to Options or Stock Appreciation Rights.

ARTICLE 11.

ADDITIONAL TERMS OF AWARDS

11.1 Payment. The Administrator shall determine the method or methods by which payments by any Holder with respect to any Awards granted under the Plan shall be made, including, without limitation: (a) cash or check, (b) Shares (including, in the case of payment of the exercise price of an Award, Shares issuable pursuant to the exercise of the Award) or Shares held for such minimum period of time as may be established by the Administrator, in each case, having a Fair Market Value on the date of delivery equal to the aggregate payments required, (c) delivery of a written or electronic notice that the Holder has placed a market sell order with a broker acceptable to the Company with respect to Shares then issuable upon exercise or vesting of an Award, and that the broker has been directed to pay a sufficient portion of the net proceeds of the sale to the Company in satisfaction of the aggregate payments required; provided, however, that payment of such proceeds is then made to the Company upon settlement of such sale, (d) other form of legal consideration acceptable to the Administrator in its sole discretion, or (e) any combination of the above permitted forms of payment. Notwithstanding any other provision of the Plan to the contrary, no Holder who is a Director or an “executive officer” of the Company within the meaning of Section 13(k) of the Exchange Act shall be permitted to make payment with respect to any Awards granted under the Plan, or continue any extension of credit with respect to such payment, with a loan from the Company or a loan arranged by the Company in violation of Section 13(k) of the Exchange Act.

11.2 Tax Withholding. The Company or any Subsidiary shall have the authority and the right to deduct or withhold, or require a Holder to remit to the Company, an amount sufficient to satisfy federal, state, local and foreign taxes (including the Holder’s FICA, employment tax or other social security contribution obligation) required by law to be withheld with respect to any taxable event concerning a Holder arising as a result of the Plan or any Award. The Administrator may, in its sole discretion and in satisfaction of the foregoing requirement, or in satisfaction of such additional withholding obligations as a Holder may have elected, allow a Holder to satisfy such obligations by any payment means described in Section 11.1 hereof, including without limitation, by allowing such Holder to have the Company or any Subsidiary withhold Shares otherwise issuable under an Award (or allow the surrender of Shares). The number of Shares which may be so withheld or surrendered shall be limited to the number of Shares which have a fair market value on the date of withholding or repurchase no greater than the aggregate amount of such liabilities based on the maximum statutory withholding rates in the Holder’s applicable jurisdictions for federal, state, local and foreign income tax and payroll tax purposes that are applicable to such taxable income. The Administrator shall determine the fair market value of the Shares, consistent with applicable provisions of the Code, for tax withholding obligations due in connection with a broker-assisted cashless Option or Stock Appreciation Right exercise involving the sale of Shares to pay the Option or Stock Appreciation Right exercise price or any tax withholding obligation.

11.3 Transferability of Awards.

(a) Except as otherwise provided in Sections 11.3(b) and 11.3(c):

(i) No Award under the Plan may be sold, pledged, assigned or transferred in any manner other than (A) by will or the laws of descent and distribution or (B) subject to the consent of the Administrator,

pursuant to a DRO, unless and until such Award has been exercised or the Shares underlying such Award have been issued, and all restrictions applicable to such Shares have lapsed;

(ii) No Award or interest or right therein shall be liable for or otherwise subject to the debts, contracts or engagements of the Holder or the Holder’s successors in interest or shall be subject to disposition by transfer, alienation, anticipation, pledge, hypothecation, encumbrance, assignment or any other means whether such disposition be voluntary or involuntary or by operation of law by judgment, levy, attachment, garnishment or any other legal or equitable proceedings (including bankruptcy) unless and until such Award has been exercised, or the Shares underlying such Award have been issued, and all restrictions applicable to such Shares have lapsed, and any attempted disposition of an Award prior to satisfaction of these conditions shall be null and void and of no effect, except to the extent that such disposition is permitted by Section 11.3(a)(i); and

(iii) During the lifetime of the Holder, only the Holder may exercise any exercisable portion of an Award granted to such Holder under the Plan, unless it has been disposed of pursuant to a DRO. After the death of the Holder, any exercisable portion of an Award may, prior to the time when such portion becomes unexercisable under the Plan or the applicable Program or Award Agreement, be exercised by the Holder’s personal representative or by any person empowered to do so under the deceased Holder’s will or under the then-applicable laws of descent and distribution.

(b) Notwithstanding Section 11.3(a), the Administrator, in its sole discretion, may determine to permit a Holder or a Permitted Transferee of such Holder to transfer an Award other than an Incentive Stock Option (unless such Incentive Stock Option is intended to become a Nonqualified Stock Option) to any one or more Permitted Transferees of such Holder, subject to the following terms and conditions: (i) an Award transferred to a Permitted Transferee shall not be assignable or transferable by the Permitted Transferee other than (A) to another Permitted Transferee of the applicable Holder or (B) by will or the laws of descent and distribution or, subject to the consent of the Administrator, pursuant to a DRO; (ii) an Award transferred to a Permitted Transferee shall continue to be subject to all the terms and conditions of the Award as applicable to the original Holder (other than the ability to further transfer the Award to any Person other than another Permitted Transferee of the applicable Holder); and (iii) the Holder (or transferring Permitted Transferee) and the receiving Permitted Transferee shall execute any and all documents requested by the Administrator, including, without limitation documents to (A) confirm the status of the transferee as a Permitted Transferee, (B) satisfy any requirements for an exemption for the transfer under Applicable Law and (C) evidence the transfer. In addition, and further notwithstanding Section 11.3(a), hereof, the Administrator, in its sole discretion, may determine to permit a Holder to transfer Incentive Stock Options to a trust that constitutes a Permitted Transferee if, under Section 671 of the Code and other Applicable Law, the Holder is considered the sole beneficial owner of the Incentive Stock Option while it is held in the trust.

(c) Notwithstanding Section 11.3(a), a Holder may, in the manner determined by the Administrator, designate a beneficiary to exercise the rights of the Holder and to receive any distribution with respect to any Award upon the Holder’s death. A beneficiary, legal guardian, legal representative, or other person claiming any rights pursuant to the Plan is subject to all terms and conditions of the Plan and any Program or Award Agreement applicable to the Holder and any additional restrictions deemed necessary or appropriate by the Administrator. If the Holder is married or a domestic partner in a domestic partnership qualified under Applicable Law and resides in a community property state, a designation of a person other than the Holder’s spouse or domestic partner, as applicable, as the Holder’s beneficiary with respect to more than fifty percent (50%) of the Holder’s interest in the Award shall not be effective without the prior written or electronic consent of the Holder’s spouse or domestic partner. If no beneficiary has been designated or survives the Holder, payment shall be made to the person entitled thereto pursuant to the Holder’s will or the laws of descent and distribution. Subject to the foregoing, a beneficiary designation may be changed or revoked by a Holder at any time; provided, however, that the change or revocation is delivered in writing to the Administrator prior to the Holder’s death.

11.4 Conditions to Issuance of Shares.

(a) The Administrator shall determine the methods by which Shares shall be delivered or deemed to be delivered to Holders. Notwithstanding anything herein to the contrary, the Company shall not be required to

issue or deliver any certificates or make any book entries evidencing Shares pursuant to the exercise of any Award, unless and until the Administrator has determined, with advice of counsel, that the issuance of such Shares is in compliance with Applicable Law and the Shares are covered by an effective registration statement or applicable exemption from registration. In addition to the terms and conditions provided herein, the Administrator may require that a Holder make such reasonable covenants, agreements and representations as the Administrator, in its sole discretion, deems advisable in order to comply with Applicable Law.

(b) All share certificates delivered pursuant to the Plan and all Shares issued pursuant to book entry procedures are subject to any stop-transfer orders and other restrictions as the Administrator deems necessary or advisable to comply with Applicable Law. The Administrator may place legends on any share certificate or book entry to reference restrictions applicable to the Shares (including, without limitation, restrictions applicable to Restricted Stock).

(c) The Administrator shall have the right to require any Holder to comply with any timing or other restrictions with respect to the settlement, distribution or exercise of any Award, including a window-period limitation, as may be imposed in the sole discretion of the Administrator.

(d) No fractional Shares shall be issued and the Administrator, in its sole discretion, shall determine whether cash shall be given in lieu of fractional Shares or whether such fractional Shares shall be eliminated by rounding down.

(e) The Company, in its sole discretion, may (i) retain physical possession of any stock certificate evidencing Shares until any restrictions thereon shall have lapsed and/or (ii) require that the stock certificates evidencing such Shares be held in custody by a designated escrow agent (which may but need not be the Company) until the restrictions thereon shall have lapsed, and that the Holder deliver a stock power, endorsed in blank, relating to such Shares.

(f) Notwithstanding any other provision of the Plan, unless otherwise determined by the Administrator or required by Applicable Law, the Company shall not deliver to any Holder certificates evidencing Shares issued in connection with any Award and instead such Shares shall be recorded in the books of the Company (or, as applicable, its transfer agent or stock plan administrator).

11.5 Forfeiture and Claw-Back Provisions. All Awards (including any proceeds, gains or other economic benefit actually or constructively received by a Holder upon any receipt or exercise of any Award or upon the receipt or resale of any Shares underlying the Award and any payments of a portion of an incentive-based bonus pool allocated to a Holder) shall be subject to the provisions of any claw-back policy implemented by the Company, including, without limitation, any claw-back policy adopted to comply with the requirements of Applicable Law, including, without limitation, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and any rules or regulations promulgated thereunder, whether or not such claw-back policy was in place at the time of grant of an Award, to the extent set forth in such claw-back policy and/or in the applicable Award Agreement.

11.6 Prohibition on Repricing. Subject to Section 13.2, the Administrator shall not, without the approval of the stockholders of the Company, (a) authorize the amendment of any outstanding Option or Stock Appreciation Right to reduce its price per Share, or (b) cancel any Option or Stock Appreciation Right in exchange for cash or another Award when the Option or Stock Appreciation Right price per Share exceeds the Fair Market Value of the underlying Shares.

11.7 Amendment of Awards. Subject to Applicable Law, the Administrator may amend, modify or terminate any outstanding Award, including but not limited to, substituting therefor another Award of the same or a different type, changing the date of exercise or settlement, and converting an Incentive Stock Option to a Non-Qualified Stock Option. The Holder’s consent to such action shall be required unless (a) the Administrator determines that the action, taking into account any related action, would not materially and adversely affect the Holder, or (b) the change is otherwise permitted under the Plan (including, without limitation, under Section 13.2 or 13.10).

11.8 Data Privacy. As a condition of receipt of any Award, each Holder explicitly and unambiguously consents to the collection, use and transfer, in electronic or other form, of personal data as described in this Section 11.8 by and among, as applicable, the Company and its Subsidiaries for the exclusive purpose of implementing, administering and managing the Holder’s participation in the Plan. The Company and its Subsidiaries may hold certain personal information about a Holder, including but not limited to, the Holder’s name, home address and telephone number, date of birth, social security or insurance number or other identification number, salary, nationality, job title(s), any shares of stock held in the Company or any of its Subsidiaries, details of all Awards, in each case, for the purpose of implementing, managing and administering the Plan and Awards (the “Data”). The Company and its Subsidiaries may transfer the Data amongst themselves as necessary for the purpose of implementation, administration and management of a Holder’s participation in the Plan, and the Company and its Subsidiaries may each further transfer the Data to any third parties assisting the Company and its Subsidiaries in the implementation, administration and management of the Plan. These recipients may be located in the Holder’s country, or elsewhere, and the Holder’s country may have different data privacy laws and protections than the recipients’ country. Through acceptance of an Award, each Holder authorizes such recipients to receive, possess, use, retain and transfer the Data, in electronic or other form, for the purposes of implementing, administering and managing the Holder’s participation in the Plan, including any requisite transfer of such Data as may be required to a broker or other third party with whom the Company or any of its Subsidiaries or the Holder may elect to deposit any Shares. The Data related to a Holder will be held only as long as is necessary to implement, administer, and manage the Holder’s participation in the Plan. A Holder may, at any time, view the Data held by the Company with respect to such Holder, request additional information about the storage and processing of the Data with respect to such Holder, recommend any necessary corrections to the Data with respect to the Holder or refuse or withdraw the consents herein in writing, in any case without cost, by contacting his or her local stock plan administrator, legal representative or human resources representative. The Company may cancel Holder’s ability to participate in the Plan and, in the Administrator’s discretion, the Holder may forfeit any outstanding Awards if the Holder refuses or withdraws his or her consents as described herein. For more information on the consequences of refusal to consent or withdrawal of consent, Holders may contact their local stock plan administrator, legal representative or human resources representative.

ARTICLE 12.

ADMINISTRATION

12.1 Administrator. The Committee shall administer the Plan (except as otherwise permitted herein). To the extent necessary to comply with Rule 16b-3 of the Exchange Act, and with respect to Awards that are intended to be Performance-Based Compensation, including Options and Stock Appreciation Rights, the Committee shall take all action with respect to such Awards, and for purposes of all such actions shall consist solely of two (2) or more Non-Employee Directors, each of whom is intended to qualify as both a “non-employee director” as defined by Rule 16b-3 of the Exchange Act or any successor rule and an “outside director” for purposes of Section 162(m) of the Code. Additionally, to the extent required by Applicable Law, each of the individuals constituting the Committee shall be an “independent director” under the rules of any securities exchange or automated quotation system on which the Shares are listed, quoted or traded. Notwithstanding the foregoing, any action taken by the Committee shall be valid and effective, whether or not members of the Committee at the time of such action are later determined not to have satisfied the requirements for membership set forth in this Section 12.1 or the Organizational Documents. Except as may otherwise be provided in the Organizational Documents or as otherwise required by Applicable Law, (a) appointment of Committee members shall be effective upon acceptance of appointment, (b) Committee members may resign at any time by delivering written or electronic notice to the Board and (c) vacancies in the Committee may only be filled by the Board. Notwithstanding the foregoing, (i) the full Board, acting by a majority of its members in office, shall conduct the general administration of the Plan with respect to Awards granted to Non-Employee Directors and, with respect to such Awards, the terms “Administrator” as used in the Plan shall be deemed to refer to the Board and (ii) the Board or Committee may delegate its authority hereunder to the extent permitted by Section 12.6.

12.2 Duties and Powers of Administrator. It shall be the duty of the Administrator to conduct the general administration of the Plan in accordance with its provisions. The Administrator shall have the power to interpret the Plan, all Programs and Award Agreements, and to adopt such rules for the administration, interpretation and application of the Plan and any Program as are not inconsistent with the Plan, to interpret, amend or revoke any such rules and to amend the Plan or any Program or Award Agreement; provided, however, that the rights or obligations of the Holder of the Award that is the subject of any such Program or Award Agreement are not materially and adversely affected by such amendment, unless the consent of the Holder is obtained or such amendment is otherwise permitted under Section 11.5 or Section 13.10. In its sole discretion, the Board may at any time and from time to time exercise any and all rights and duties of the Committee in its capacity as the Administrator under the Plan except with respect to matters which under Rule 16b-3 under the Exchange Act or any successor rule, or Section 162(m) of the Code, or any regulations or rules issued thereunder, or the rules of any securities exchange or automated quotation system on which the Shares are listed, quoted or traded are required to be determined in the sole discretion of the Committee.

12.3 Action by the Administrator. Unless otherwise established by the Board, set forth in any Organizational Documents or as required by Applicable Law, a majority of the Administrator shall constitute a quorum and the acts of a majority of the members present at any meeting at which a quorum is present, and acts approved in writing by all members of the Administrator in lieu of a meeting, shall be deemed the acts of the Administrator. Each member of the Administrator is entitled to, in good faith, rely or act upon any report or other information furnished to that member by any officer or other employee of the Company or any Subsidiary, the Company’s independent certified public accountants, or any executive compensation consultant or other professional retained by the Company to assist in the administration of the Plan.

12.4 Authority of Administrator. Subject to the Organizational Documents, any specific designation in the Plan and Applicable Law, the Administrator has the exclusive power, authority and sole discretion to:

(a) Designate Eligible Individuals to receive Awards;

(b) Determine the type or types of Awards to be granted to each Eligible Individual (including, without limitation, any Awards granted in tandem with another Award granted pursuant to the Plan);

(d) Determine the terms and conditions of any Award granted pursuant to the Plan, including, but not limited to, the exercise price, grant price, purchase price, any Performance Criteria or performance criteria, any restrictions or limitations on the Award, any schedule for vesting, lapse of forfeiture restrictions or restrictions on the exercisability of an Award, and accelerations or waivers thereof, and any provisions related to non-competition and claw-back and recapture of gain on an Award, based in each case on such considerations as the Administrator in its sole discretion determines;

(e) Determine whether, to what extent, and under what circumstances an Award may be settled in, or the exercise price of an Award may be paid in cash, Shares, other Awards, or other property, or an Award may be canceled, forfeited, or surrendered;

(f) Prescribe the form of each Award Agreement, which need not be identical for each Holder;

(g) Decide all other matters that must be determined in connection with an Award;

(h) Establish, adopt, or revise any Programs, rules and regulations as it may deem necessary or advisable to administer the Plan;

(i) Interpret the terms of, and any matter arising pursuant to, the Plan, any Program or any Award Agreement;

(j) Make all other decisions and determinations that may be required pursuant to the Plan or as the Administrator deems necessary or advisable to administer the Plan; and

(k) Accelerate wholly or partially the vesting or lapse of restrictions of any Award or portion thereof at any time after the grant of an Award, subject to whatever terms and conditions it selects and Section 13.2.

12.5 Decisions Binding. The Administrator’s interpretation of the Plan, any Awards granted pursuant to the Plan, any Program or any Award Agreement and all decisions and determinations by the Administrator with respect to the Plan are final, binding and conclusive on all Persons.

12.6 Delegation of Authority. The Board or Committee may from time to time delegate to a committee of one or more members of the Board or one or more officers of the Company the authority to grant or amend Awards or to take other administrative actions pursuant to this Article 12; provided, however, that in no event shall an officer of the Company be delegated the authority to grant Awards to, or amend Awards held by, the following individuals: (a) individuals who are subject to Section 16 of the Exchange Act, (b) Covered Employees with respect to Awards intended to constitute Performance Based Compensation, or (c) officers of the Company (or Directors) to whom authority to grant or amend Awards has been delegated hereunder; provided, further, that any delegation of administrative authority shall only be permitted to the extent it is permissible under any Organizational Documents and Applicable Law (including, without limitation, Section 162(m) of the Code). Any delegation hereunder shall be subject to the restrictions and limits that the Board or Committee specifies at the time of such delegation or that are otherwise included in the applicable Organizational Documents, and the Board or Committee, as applicable, may at any time rescind the authority so delegated or appoint a new delegatee. At all times, the delegatee appointed under this Section 12.6 shall serve in such capacity at the pleasure of the Board or the Committee, as applicable, and the Board or the Committee may abolish any committee at any time and re-vest in itself any previously delegated authority.

ARTICLE 13.

MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS

13.1 Amendment, Suspension or Termination of the Plan.

(a) Except as otherwise provided in Section 13.1(b) and subject to the limitations contained in Section 11.6, the Plan may be wholly or partially amended or otherwise modified, suspended or terminated at any time or from time to time by the Board; provided, however, that, except as provided in Section 11.5 and Section 13.10, no amendment, suspension or termination of the Plan shall, without the consent of the Holder, materially and adversely affect any rights or obligations under any Award theretofore granted or awarded, unless the Award itself otherwise expressly so provides.

(b) Notwithstanding Section 13.1(a), the Board may not, except as provided in Section 13.2, increase the limit imposed in Section 3.1 on the maximum number of Shares which may be issued under the Plan, the Award Limit or the Director Limit without approval of the Company’s stockholders.

(c) No Awards may be granted or awarded during any period of suspension or after termination of the Plan, and notwithstanding anything herein to the contrary, in no event may any Incentive Stock Option be granted under the Plan after the tenth (10th) anniversary of the Effective Date (such anniversary, the “Expiration Date”). Any Awards that are outstanding on the Expiration Date shall remain in force according to the terms of the Plan, the applicable Program and the applicable Award Agreement.

13.2 Changes in Common Stock or Assets of the Company, Acquisition or Liquidation of the Company and Other Corporate Events.

(a) In the event of any stock dividend, stock split, combination or exchange of shares, merger, consolidation or other distribution (other than normal cash dividends) of Company assets to stockholders, or any other change affecting the shares of the Company’s stock or the share price of the Company’s stock other than an Equity Restructuring, the Administrator may make equitable adjustments, if any, to reflect such change with respect to: (i) the aggregate number and kind of Shares that may be issued under the Plan (including, but not limited to, adjustments of the limitations in Section 3.1 on the maximum number and kind of Shares which may be issued under the Plan, and adjustments of the Award Limit); (ii) the number and kind of Shares (or other securities or property) subject to outstanding Awards; (iii) the terms and conditions of any outstanding Awards (including, without limitation, any applicable performance targets or criteria with respect thereto); and (iv) the grant or exercise price per share for any outstanding Awards under the Plan. Any adjustment affecting an Award intended as Performance-Based Compensation shall be made consistent with the requirements of Section 162(m) of the Code unless otherwise determined by the Administrator.

(b) In the event of any transaction or event described in Section 13.2(a) or any unusual or nonrecurring transactions or events affecting the Company, any Subsidiary of the Company, or the financial statements of the Company or any Subsidiary, or of changes in Applicable Law or Applicable Accounting Standards, the Administrator, in its sole discretion, and on such terms and conditions as it deems appropriate, either by the terms of the Award or by action taken prior to the occurrence of such transaction or event, is hereby authorized to take any one or more of the following actions whenever the Administrator determines that such action is appropriate in order to prevent the inequitable dilution or enlargement of the benefits or potential benefits provided under the Plan or with respect to any Award under the Plan, to facilitate such transactions or events or to give effect to such changes in Applicable Law or Applicable Accounting Standards:

(i) To provide for the termination of any such Award in exchange for an amount of cash and/or other property with a value equal to the amount that would have been attained upon the exercise of such Award or realization of the Holder’s rights, which value may be determined by reference to the level of attainment of applicable Performance Goals (as applicable) if determined by the Administrator (and, for the avoidance of doubt, if as of the date of the occurrence of the transaction or event described in this Section 13.2 the Administrator determines in good faith that no amount would have been attained upon the exercise of such Award or realization of the Holder’s rights, then such Award may be terminated by the Company without payment);

(ii) To provide that such Award be assumed by the successor or survivor corporation, or a parent or subsidiary thereof, or shall be substituted for by similar options, rights or awards covering the stock of the successor or survivor corporation, or a parent or subsidiary thereof, with appropriate adjustments as to the number and kind of shares and applicable exercise or purchase price, in all cases, as determined by the Administrator;

(iii) To make adjustments in the number and type of Shares of the Company’s stock (or other securities or property) subject to outstanding Awards, and/or in the terms and conditions of (including the grant or exercise price), and the criteria included in, outstanding Awards and Awards which may be granted in the future;

(iv) To provide that such Award shall be exercisable or payable or fully vested with respect to all Shares covered thereby, notwithstanding anything to the contrary in the Plan or the applicable Program or Award Agreement;

(v) To replace such Award with other rights or property selected by the Administrator; and/or

(vi) To provide that the Award cannot vest, be exercised or become payable after such event.

Without limiting the foregoing, the Administrator may require a Holder to execute a release of claims, in a form prescribed by the Company, as a condition to the Holder’s receipt of payment in connection with a Change in Control for or in respect of any Award granted or issued under the Plan.

(c) In connection with the occurrence of any Equity Restructuring, and notwithstanding anything to the contrary in Sections 13.2(a) and 13.2(b):

(i) The number and type of securities subject to each outstanding Award and the exercise price or grant price thereof, if applicable, shall be equitably adjusted (and the adjustments provided under this Section 13.2(c)(i) shall be nondiscretionary and shall be final and binding on the affected Holder and the Company); and/or

(ii) The Administrator shall make such equitable adjustments, if any, as the Administrator, in its sole discretion, may deem appropriate to reflect such Equity Restructuring with respect to the aggregate number and kind of Shares that may be issued under the Plan (including, but not limited to, adjustments of the limitation in Section 3.1 on the maximum number and kind of Shares which may be issued under the Plan, and adjustments of the Award Limit).

(d) Notwithstanding any other provision of the Plan, in the event of a Change in Control, unless the Administrator elects to (i) terminate an Award in exchange for cash, rights or property, or (ii) cause an Award to become fully exercisable and no longer subject to any forfeiture restrictions prior to the consummation of a Change in Control, pursuant to Section 13.2, such Award shall continue in effect or be assumed or an equivalent Award substituted by the successor corporation or a parent or subsidiary of the successor corporation.

(e) In the event that the successor corporation in a Change in Control refuses to assume or substitute for an Award, the Administrator may cause (i) any or all of such Award to terminate in exchange for cash, rights or other property pursuant to Section 13.2(b)(i), or (ii) any or all of such Awards to become fully exercisable immediately prior to the consummation of such transaction and all forfeiture restrictions on any or all of such Awards to lapse. If any such Award is exercisable in lieu of assumption or substitution in the event of a Change in Control, the Administrator shall notify the Holder in advance that such Award shall be fully exercisable on or prior to the Change in Control and contingent upon the occurrence of the Change in Control, and such Award shall terminate upon the expiration of such period if not exercised.

(f) For the purposes of this Section 13.2, an Award shall be considered assumed if, following the Change in Control, the Award confers the right to purchase or receive, for each Share subject to the Award immediately prior to the Change in Control, the consideration (whether stock, cash, or other securities or property) received in the Change in Control by holders of Common Stock for each Share held on the effective date of the transaction (and if holders were offered a choice of consideration, the type of consideration chosen by the holders of a majority of the outstanding Shares); provided, however, that if such consideration received in the Change in Control was not solely common stock of the successor corporation or its parent, the Administrator may, with the consent of the successor corporation, provide for the consideration to be received upon the exercise of the Award, for each Share subject to an Award, to be solely common stock of the successor corporation or its parent equal in fair market value to the per-share consideration received by holders of Common Stock in the Change in Control.

(g) The Administrator, in its sole discretion, may include such further provisions and limitations in any Award, agreement or certificate, as it may deem equitable and in the best interests of the Company that are not inconsistent with the provisions of the Plan.

(h) Unless otherwise determined by the Administrator, no adjustment or action described in this Section 13.2 or in any other provision of the Plan shall be authorized to the extent it would (i) with respect to Awards which are granted to Covered Employees and are intended to qualify as Performance-Based Compensation, cause such Award to fail to so qualify as Performance-Based Compensation, (ii) cause the Plan to violate Section 422(b)(1) of the Code, (iii) result in short-swing profits liability under Section 16 of the Exchange Act or violate the exemptive conditions of Rule 16b-3 of the Exchange Act, or (iv) cause an Award to be subject to income inclusion under Section 409A.

(i) The existence of the Plan, any Program, any Award Agreement and/or the Awards granted hereunder shall not affect or restrict in any way the right or power of the Company or the stockholders of the Company to make or authorize any adjustment, recapitalization, reorganization or other change in the Company’s capital structure or its business, any merger or consolidation of the Company, any issue of stock or of options, warrants or rights to purchase stock or of bonds, debentures, preferred or prior preference stocks whose rights are superior to or affect the Common Stock or the rights thereof or which are convertible into or exchangeable for Common Stock, or the dissolution or liquidation of the Company, or any sale or transfer of all or any part of its assets or business, or any other corporate act or proceeding, whether of a similar character or otherwise.

(j) In the event of any pending stock dividend, stock split, combination or exchange of shares, merger, consolidation or other distribution (other than normal cash dividends) of Company assets to stockholders, or any other change affecting the Shares or the share price of the Common Stock including any Equity Restructuring, for reasons of administrative convenience, the Administrator, in its sole discretion, may refuse to permit the exercise of any Award during a period of up to thirty (30) days prior to the consummation of any such transaction.

13.3 Approval of Plan by Stockholders. The Plan shall be submitted for the approval of the Company’s stockholders within twelve (12) months after the date of the Board’s initial adoption of the Plan (as amended and restated). Awards may be granted or awarded prior to such stockholder approval; provided, however, that such Awards shall not be exercisable, shall not vest and the restrictions thereon shall not lapse and no Shares shall be issued pursuant thereto prior to the time when the Plan is approved by the Company’s stockholders; and provided, further, that if such approval has not been obtained at the end of said twelve (12) month period, all Awards previously granted or awarded under the Plan shall thereupon be considered granted under the Prior Plan, which will continue in full force and effect on its terms and conditions as in effect immediately prior to the date this Plan is approved by the Board.

13.4 No Stockholders Rights. Except as otherwise provided herein or in an applicable Program or Award Agreement, a Holder shall have none of the rights of a stockholder with respect to Shares covered by any Award until the Holder becomes the record owner of such Shares.

13.5 Paperless Administration. In the event that the Company establishes, for itself or using the services of a third party, an automated system for the documentation, granting or exercise of Awards, such as a system using an

internet website or interactive voice response, then the paperless documentation, granting or exercise of Awards by a Holder may be permitted through the use of such an automated system.

13.6 Effect of Plan upon Other Compensation Plans. The adoption of the Plan shall not affect any other compensation or incentive plans in effect for the Company or any Subsidiary. Nothing in the Plan shall be construed to limit the right of the Company or any Subsidiary: (a) to establish any other forms of incentives or compensation for Employees, Directors or Consultants of the Company or any Subsidiary, or (b) to grant or assume options or other rights or awards otherwise than under the Plan in connection with any proper corporate purpose including without limitation, the grant or assumption of options in connection with the acquisition by purchase, lease, merger, consolidation or otherwise, of the business, stock or assets of any corporation, partnership, limited liability company, firm or association.

13.7 Compliance with Laws. The Plan, the granting and vesting of Awards under the Plan and the issuance and delivery of Shares and the payment of money under the Plan or under Awards granted or awarded hereunder are subject to compliance with all Applicable Law (including but not limited to state, federal and foreign securities law and margin requirements), and to such approvals by any listing, regulatory or governmental authority as may, in the opinion of counsel for the Company, be necessary or advisable in connection therewith. Any securities delivered under the Plan shall be subject to such restrictions, and the person acquiring such securities shall, if requested by the Company, provide such assurances and representations to the Company as the Company may deem necessary or desirable to assure compliance with all Applicable Law. The Administrator, in its sole discretion, may take whatever actions it deems necessary or appropriate to effect compliance with Applicable Law, including, without limitation, placing legends on share certificates and issuing stop-transfer notices to agents and registrars. Notwithstanding anything to the contrary herein, the Administrator may not take any actions hereunder, and no Awards shall be granted, that would violate Applicable Law. To the extent permitted by Applicable Law, the Plan and Awards granted or awarded hereunder shall be deemed amended to the extent necessary to conform to Applicable Law.

13.8 Titles and Headings, References to Sections of the Code or Exchange Act. The titles and headings of the Sections in the Plan are for convenience of reference only and, in the event of any conflict, the text of the Plan, rather than such titles or headings, shall control. References to sections of the Code or the Exchange Act shall include any amendment or successor thereto.

13.9 Governing Law. The Plan and any Programs and Award Agreements hereunder shall be administered, interpreted and enforced under the internal laws of the State of Nevada without regard to conflicts of laws thereof or of any other jurisdiction.

13.10 Section 409A. To the extent that the Administrator determines that any Award granted under the Plan is subject to Section 409A, the Plan, the Program pursuant to which such Award is granted and the Award Agreement evidencing such Award shall incorporate the terms and conditions required by Section 409A. In that regard, to the extent any Award under the Plan or any other compensatory plan or arrangement of the Company or any of its Subsidiaries is subject to Section 409A, and such Award or other amount is payable on account of a Participant’s Termination of Service (or any similarly defined term), then (a) such Award or amount shall only be paid to the extent such Termination of Service qualifies as a “separation from service” as defined in Section 409A, and (b) if such Award or amount is payable to a “specified employee” as defined in Section 409A, then to the extent required in order to avoid a prohibited distribution under Section 409A, such Award or other compensatory payment shall not be payable prior to the earlier of (i) the expiration of the six (6)-month period measured from the date of the Participant’s Termination of Service, or (ii) the date of the Participant’s death. To the extent applicable, the Plan, any Program and any Award Agreements shall be interpreted in accordance with Section 409A. Notwithstanding any provision of the Plan to the contrary, in the event that following the Effective Date the Administrator determines that any Award may be subject to Section 409A, the Administrator may (but is not obligated to), without a Holder’s consent, adopt such amendments to the Plan and any applicable Program and Award Agreement or adopt other policies and procedures (including amendments, policies and procedures with retroactive effect), or take any other actions, that the Administrator determines are necessary or appropriate to (A) exempt the Award from Section 409A and/or preserve the intended tax treatment of the benefits provided with respect to the Award, or (B) comply with the requirements of Section 409A and thereby avoid the application of any penalty taxes under Section 409A. The

Company makes no representations or warranties as to the tax treatment of any Award under Section 409A or otherwise. The Company shall have no obligation under this Section 13.10 or otherwise to take any action (whether or not described herein) to avoid the imposition of taxes, penalties or interest under Section 409A with respect to any Award and shall have no liability to any Holder or any other person if any Award, compensation or other benefits under the Plan are determined to constitute non-compliant, “nonqualified deferred compensation” subject to the imposition of taxes, penalties and/or interest under Section 409A.

13.11 Unfunded Status of Awards. The Plan is intended to be an “unfunded” plan for incentive compensation. With respect to any payments not yet made to a Holder pursuant to an Award, nothing contained in the Plan or any Program or Award Agreement shall give the Holder any rights that are greater than those of a general creditor of the Company or any Subsidiary.

13.12 Indemnification. To the extent permitted under Applicable Law and the Organizational Documents, each member of the Administrator shall be indemnified and held harmless by the Company from any loss, cost, liability, or expense that may be imposed upon or reasonably incurred by such member in connection with or resulting from any claim, action, suit, or proceeding to which he or she may be a party or in which he or she may be involved by reason of any action or failure to act pursuant to the Plan and against and from any and all amounts paid by him or her in satisfaction of judgment in such action, suit, or proceeding against him or her; provided he or she gives the Company an opportunity, at its own expense, to handle and defend the same before he or she undertakes to handle and defend it on his or her own behalf. The foregoing right of indemnification shall not be exclusive of any other rights of indemnification to which such persons may be entitled pursuant to the Organizational Documents, as a matter of law, or otherwise, or any power that the Company may have to indemnify them or hold them harmless.

13.13 Relationship to other Benefits. No payment pursuant to the Plan shall be taken into account in determining any benefits under any pension, retirement, savings, profit sharing, group insurance, welfare or other benefit plan of the Company or any Subsidiary except to the extent otherwise expressly provided in writing in such other plan or an agreement thereunder.

13.14 Expenses. The expenses of administering the Plan shall be borne by the Company and its Subsidiaries.

* * * * *

Document

Exhibit 31.1

Certification of Principal Executive Officer

pursuant to

Exchange Act Rules 13a-14(a) and 15d-14(a),

as adopted pursuant to

Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002

I, Jeff T. Green, certify that:

1.I have reviewed this quarterly report on Form 10-Q of The Trade Desk, Inc.;

2.Based on my knowledge, this report does not contain any untrue statement of a material fact or omit to state a material fact necessary to make the statements made, in light of the circumstances under which such statements were made, not misleading with respect to the period covered by this report;

3.Based on my knowledge, the financial statements, and other financial information included in this report, fairly present in all material respects the financial condition, results of operations and cash flows of the registrant as of, and for, the periods presented in this report;

4.The registrant’s other certifying officer and I are responsible for establishing and maintaining disclosure controls and procedures (as defined in Exchange Act Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e)) and internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Exchange Act Rules 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f)) for the registrant and have:

a)Designed such disclosure controls and procedures, or caused such disclosure controls and procedures to be designed under our supervision, to ensure that material information relating to the registrant, including its consolidated subsidiaries, is made known to us by others within those entities, particularly during the period in which this report is being prepared;

b)Designed such internal control over financial reporting, or caused such internal control over financial reporting to be designed under our supervision, to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the preparation of financial statements for external purposes in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles;

c)Evaluated the effectiveness of the registrant’s disclosure controls and procedures and presented in this report our conclusions about the effectiveness of the disclosure controls and procedures, as of the end of the period covered by this report based on such evaluation; and

d)Disclosed in this report any change in the registrant’s internal control over financial reporting that occurred during the registrant’s most recent fiscal quarter (the registrant’s fourth fiscal quarter in the case of an annual report) that has materially affected, or is reasonably likely to materially affect, the registrant’s internal control over financial reporting; and

5.The registrant’s other certifying officer and I have disclosed, based on our most recent evaluation of internal control over financial reporting, to the registrant’s auditors and the audit committee of the registrant’s board of directors (or persons performing the equivalent functions):

a)All significant deficiencies and material weaknesses in the design or operation of internal control over financial reporting which are reasonably likely to adversely affect the registrant’s ability to record, process, summarize and report financial information; and

b)Any fraud, whether or not material, that involves management or other employees who have a significant role in the registrant’s internal control over financial reporting.

Date: August 7, 2025	/s/ Jeff T. Green
	Jeff T. Green
	Chief Executive Officer<br><br>(Principal Executive Officer)

Document

Exhibit 31.2

Certification of Principal Financial Officer

pursuant to

Exchange Act Rules 13a-14(a) and 15d-14(a),

as adopted pursuant to

Section 302 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002

I, Laura Schenkein, certify that:

1.I have reviewed this quarterly report on Form 10-Q of The Trade Desk, Inc.;

b)Any fraud, whether or not material, that involves management or other employees who have a significant role in the registrant’s internal control over financial reporting.

Date: August 7, 2025	/s/ Laura Schenkein
	Laura Schenkein
	Chief Financial Officer<br><br>(Principal Financial and Accounting Officer)

Document

Exhibit 32.1

Certifications of Principal Executive Officer and Principal Financial Officer

pursuant to

18 U.S.C. Section 1350,

as adopted pursuant to

Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002

Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as adopted pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, Jeff T. Green, Chief Executive Officer (Principal Executive Officer) of The Trade Desk, Inc. (the “Company”), and Laura Schenkein, Chief Financial Officer (Principal Financial Officer) of the Company, each hereby certifies that, to the best of his or her knowledge:

1)The Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the quarter ended June 30, 2025, to which this certification is attached as Exhibit 32.1 (the “Report”), fully complies with the requirements of Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended; and

2)The information contained in the Report fairly presents, in all material respects, the financial condition and results of operations of the Company.

Date: August 7, 2025	/s/ Jeff T. Green
	Jeff T. Green
	Chief Executive Officer<br><br>(Principal Executive Officer)	/s/ Laura Schenkein
---
Laura Schenkein
Chief Financial Officer<br><br>(Principal Financial and Accounting Officer)

The foregoing certifications are being furnished pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350. They are not being filed for purposes of Section 18 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, and are not to be incorporated by reference into any filing of the Company, regardless of any general incorporation language in such filing.

10-Q

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-Q

For the quarterly period ended June 30, 2025

For the transition period from __________ to __________

Commission File Number: 001-37879

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

42 N. Chestnut Street

Ventura, California 93001

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (805) 585-3434

N/A

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

QUARTERLY REPORT ON FORM 10-Q

INDEX

PART I. FINANCIAL INFORMATION

Item 1. Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEETS

The accompanying Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements are an integral part of these statements.

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF OPERATIONS

The accompanying Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements are an integral part of these statements.

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY

The accompanying Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements are an integral part of these statements.

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF CASH FLOWS

The accompanying Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements are an integral part of these statements.

THE TRADE DESK, INC.

NOTES TO CONDENSED CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

Use of Estimates

Recent Accounting Pronouncements Not Yet Adopted

Credit Facility

Other Short-Term Borrowings

Share Repurchase Program

Stock-Based Compensation Expense

Stock Options, Excluding the CEO Performance Option

CEO Performance Option

Restricted Stock

Employee Stock Purchase Plan (“ESPP”)

Guarantees, Indemnification and Other

Litigation

Litigation Related to 2021 CEO Performance Option

Litigation Related to Reincorporation

Litigation Related to Securities Class Actions

Shareholder Derivative Actions

Litigation Related to the Company’s Platform and Related Offerings

Employment Contracts

Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

References to “Notes” are notes included in our unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements appearing elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q.

Highlights

Trends, Opportunities and Challenges

Macroeconomic Uncertainty

Revenue

Platform Operations

Sales and Marketing

Technology and Development

General and Administrative

Total Other Income, Net

Provision for Income Taxes

Credit Facility

Other Short-Term Borrowings

Share Repurchase Program

Cash Flows

Operating Activities

Investing Activities

Financing Activities

Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk

Interest Rate Risk

Foreign Currency Exchange Risk

Item 4. Controls and Procedures

Evaluation of Disclosure Controls and Procedures

Changes in Internal Control over Financial Reporting

Inherent Limitations on Effectiveness of Controls

PART II. OTHER INFORMATION

Item 1. Legal Proceedings

Litigation Related to 2021 CEO Performance Option

Litigation Related to Reincorporation

For the transition period from to